WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Media Studies Student Book: Revised Edition

Revised Edition Media Studies GCSE WJEC/Eduqas Hayley Sheard

Introduction 8 How to Use this Book 8 The Book’s Approach to the Eduqas Set Products 8 Key Features and Structure of the Book 8 What is Expected from You 10 The WJEC GCSE Media Studies Specification 11 Main Differences in the WJEC specification 11 Similarities 11 1 The Media Studies Theoretical 14 Framework Overview 14 Media Language 14 Analysing Media Products 15 Analysing Codes of Media Language 16 Visual codes 16 Set product analysis: Quality Street advert 17 Technical codes 18 Language codes 19 Genre 19 Theoretical perspectives on genre 20 Narrative 20 Structure 20 Theoretical perspectives on narrative 22 Key Theory 1: Propp’s theory of narrative 22 Representation 24 Theoretical Perspectives on Representation 24 Set product analysis: This Girl Can 25 Stereotypes 26 Gender 26 Theoretical perspective on gender representation: feminist approaches 27 Age 28 Ethnicity 29 Media Industries 30 Production Processes 30 Ownership 30 Technology 31 Regulation 31 Audiences 32 Target Audiences 32 Theoretical perspectives on audiences 34 Key Theory 2: Blumler and Katz’s Uses and Gratifications theory 34 Audience Responses 34 Stuart Hall’s Reception theory 34 Contexts 35 2 The Media Studies Specification 37 Overview 37 Media Forms 37 Contexts 38 Theories 38 Skills 38 Analysis 38 Creation 38 The Components of the Media Studies Specification 39 Component 1: Exploring the Media 39 Overview 39 Section A: Exploring Media Language and Representation 39 Section B: Exploring Media Industries and Audiences 40 Component 2: Understanding Media Forms and Products 41 Overview 41 Section A: Television 41 Section B: Music – Music Video and Online Media 42 Component 3: Creating Media Products 43 Overview 43 The production brief 43 Contents

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Media Studies Revised Edition 3 Component 1: 44 Exploring the Media Overview 44 Section A: Exploring Media Language and Representation 44 Overview 44 Exploring Media Language 44 Exploring Representation 45 Introduction to Analysing Print Media Products 45 Codes and conventions of print media products 46 Print Advertising 48 Aims of advertising 48 Identifying different types of advertising 49 Codes and conventions of print advertising 50 Historical Advertisements 51 Analysing an example: Coca-Cola advert, 1960s 52 Analysing an example: Morris Oxford advert, 1959 53 Contemporary Advertisements 54 Analysing an example: Fiat 500 adverts, 2014 54 Analysing an example: River Island Labels are for Clothes campaign, 2018 57 Analysing an example: This Girl Can campaign, 2015 onwards 58 Analysing an example: Samaritans campaigns – Real People, Real Stories, 2019 and We Listen, 2016 59 Print Marketing: Film Posters 62 Codes and conventions of film posters 62 Analysing an example: The Rise of Skywalker, 2019 63 Analysing a historical example: Star Wars, 1977 64 Magazines 65 Codes and conventions of magazine covers 66 Set products: lifestyle magazine genre 68 Analysing an example: Vogue, September 2018 70 Analysing an example: GQ, October 2020 71 Newspapers 72 Conventions of tabloids and broadsheets 73 Codes and conventions of newspaper front pages 75 Analysing front page conventions: the The Times, 7 November 2020, election of Joe Biden 76 Comparing representations of issues and events: the announcement of Coronavirus restrictions in England, 20 March 2020 78 Section B: Exploring Media Industries and Audiences 79 Overview 79 Exploring Media Industries 79 Exploring Audiences 79 Film 80 The film industry 80 Marketing 80 Technology 81 Regulation 82 The set product: No Time To Die 83 Newspapers 86 The newspaper industry 86 Newspaper production processes 87 Regulation 88 Overview of the set product: the Sun 89 Newspaper industry: ownership and control 89 Studying the set product: the Sun, industry and audience 90 Audiences 92 The audience for the Sun 93 Theoretical perspectives: How might readers respond to an edition of the Sun? 94 Radio 95 Overview of the radio industry 95 Radio technology 96 Radio audiences 96 Industry of the set product: the BBC 97 The Archers genre: soap opera 98 Context and The Archers 98 Production and broadcasting of The Archers 99 The importance of convergence to industry and audiences: the Archers website 100 Who listens to The Archers? 101 How do audiences respond to The Archers? 101

Contents Theoretical perspectives on The Archers audiences: Uses and Gratifications 102 Video Games 102 The video games industry and the importance of new technologies 103 Epic Games 104 The set product: Fortnite 104 Industry issues: funding 106 The launch and success of Fortnite 106 Studying the Fortnite website: industry 108 and audience How are video games regulated? 109 Audiences and video games 110 The Fortnite audience 111 Theoretical perspectives: Uses and Gratifications 111 4 Assessment of Component 1: 112 Exploring the Media How Will I Be Assessed? 112 Section A: Exploring Media Language and Representation 112 Section B: Exploring Media Industries and Audiences 113 5 Component 2: Understanding 114 Media Forms and Products Overview 114 Introduction to Analysing Audio-Visual Products 114 Technical Codes 114 Camera 114 Editing 116 Audio codes 117 Section A: Television 119 Overview 119 Analysing the Set Products 120 Overview of the Television Industry 120 Timeline of key developments in UK television 121 Public service broadcasting 122 The BBC 122 ABC 123 Television Audiences 123 Section A, Option 1: Introduction to the Crime Drama Genre 124 An example of how the crime genre has changed over time: Sherlock Holmes 125 Crime drama: repertoire of elements 125 Analysing the set product: The Sweeney 128 Media language 128 Representation 129 Industry and audience 129 The cultural influence of The Sweeney 131 Historical context: the 1970s 132 Analysing the set product: Luther 133 Media language 133 Representation 135 Industry and audience 136 Contexts in Luther 139 Section A, Option 2: Introduction to the Sitcom Genre 139 Sitcom: repertoire of elements 140 Representations in context 142 Analysing the Set Product: Friends 143 Media language 143 Representation 144 Industry 144 Audience 146 Contexts 146 Contemporary Sitcoms 147 Sitcom audiences 147 Set product: Man Like Mobeen 148 Media language 148 Representation 150 Issues linked to context 150 Industry and audience 152 Set product: Modern Family 154 Media language 155 Representations, contexts and characters 157 Industry and audience 158 Section B: Music Video and Online Media 161 Overview 161 Analysing the Set Products 162

Overview of the Music Industry 163 Ownership and the music industry 164 Regulation 165 Marketing: the star persona 166 Music Audiences 167 Target audiences 168 Fandom 168 Theoretical perspectives: active audiences 169 The Contemporary Artists 169 Lizzo 169 Taylor Swift 170 Bruno Mars 170 Justin Bieber 171 Analysing Music Videos 171 A brief history of the music video 171 Codes and conventions of music videos 172 Analysing an example: ‘Love Story’ by Taylor Swift, 2008 173 Exploring Music Videos from the 1980s and 1990s 175 Context: 1980s 175 The set product: ‘Rio’ by Duran Duran 175 Analysing ‘Hungry Like the Wolf’ 176 ‘Rio’ 177 Context: 1990s 177 The set product: ‘Waterfall’s by TLC 178 Analysing ‘What About Your Friends’ 178 ‘Waterfalls’ 180 Representation in Music Videos 180 Gender representation: females 180 Representation: ethnicity 182 Analysing the Contemporary Set Music Videos 184 Contemporary contexts 184 ‘Good As Hell’ by Lizzo 185 ‘Bad Blood’ by Taylor Swift 186 ‘Uptown Funk’ by Mark Ronson, featuring Bruno Mars 186 ‘Intentions’ by Justin Bieber 187 Online Media: Analysing Websites and Social Media 188 The importance of social media 188 Codes and conventions of music websites 189 An example of online media: Lizzo’s website 189 An example of an online and social media marketing campaign: Red (Taylor’s Version) 191 How Justin Bieber uses online and social media platforms to engage audiences 192 6 Assessment of Component 2: 193 Understanding Media Forms and Products How Will I Be Assessed? 193 Section A: Television 193 Section B: Music 194 7 Component 3: Creating Media 195 Products Overview 195 Non-Exam Assessment 195 The Briefs 196 What Do I Need to Complete for the Non-Exam Assessment? 196 Key points of meeting the brief 196 Assessment of Component 3 197 Research and Planning 197 What research should I do? 197 Planning your production 199 Briefs in Individual Forms 203 Television 203 Responding to the brief 203 Research: product analysis 204 Example analysis of a television opening sequence: Thirteen 204 Secondary research 206 Planning your audio-visual production 206 Production tips 207 An example of a student television sequence: Runaway by Liam Brusby, Heaton Manor School 208 Television: website option 210 Magazines 212 Responding to the brief 213 Product analysis: print magazines 213 WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Media Studies Revised Edition

Example analysis of a double-page spread: Q magazine 213 Secondary research 215 Magazines: online option 215 Example analysis of a sport magazine website: Women’s Running 216 Film Marketing 218 Responding to the brief 219 Research: product analysis 219 Example analysis of film marketing materials: DVD cover of Brighton Rock 219 Secondary research 221 Planning film marketing materials 222 Production tips 222 An example of a student DVD cover: DCI Meara by George Hutchinson, Seaford Head School 223 Music Marketing 224 Responding to the brief 224 Research: product analysis 224 Example analysis of a music video: ‘Story of My Life’ by One Direction 225 Secondary research 226 Planning your music video 227 Production tips 227 Music marketing: website option 228 8 Component 3: Completing the 230 Cover Sheet and Statement of Aims Section A: Details of Your Production 230 Section B: Statement of Aims 231 Key Points about the Statement of Aims 231 Tips for completing the Statement of Aims 232 Sections D and E 232 9 Examination Preparation 233 Component 1: Exploring the Media 233 Preparing for Component 1, Section A: Exploring Media Language and Representation 233 Preparing for Question 1: Media language: analysis of a set product 234 Preparing for Question 2: Representation: comparison of an unseen product and a set product 235 Structuring an extended response 238 Preparing for Component 1, Section B: Exploring Media Industries and Audiences 239 2019 past-paper question: Media Industries 239 2019 past-paper question: Audiences 241 Component 2: Understanding Media Forms and Products 243 Preparing for Component 2, Section A: Television 243 Preparing for Question 1: analysis of an extract from a set product 243 2020 past-paper Question 2 245 Preparing for Component 2, Section B: Music (Music Videos and Online Media) 247 Revision tips 247 2020 past-paper Question 3 248 2019 past-paper Question 4 250 10 Quick Guide to Theoretical 251 Perspectives Media Language 251 Genre 251 Theoretical perspectives on genre 251 Narrative 251 Named theory: Propp’s theory of narrative 251 Narrative construction, structures, techniques and conventions 252 Representation 252 Theoretical Perspectives on Representation 252 Theoretical perspectives on gender and representation, including feminist approaches 252 Audience 253 Theoretical Perspectives on Audiences 253 Named theory: Blumler and Katz’s Uses and Gratifications theory 253 Glossary 254 Answers to Quickfire Questions 265 Index 275 Acknowledgements 279 Contents

8 How to Use this Book This student book is designed to provide you with detailed information and guidance about the Eduqas GCSE Media Studies specification. It introduces you to the theoretical framework of media, which is essential for developing your understanding of the subject. The book also outlines the key media forms and products that you will study, and includes a range of examples to broaden your knowledge of the media. You will find advice and guidance to help you to prepare for the written examinations at the end of the course and for the practical, non-exam assessment. This book provides plenty of opportunities for you to apply your knowledge, understanding and skills by completing the questions and activities suggested throughout the different sections. The Book’s Approach to the Eduqas Set Products • Chapter 3: Component 1, Section A, focuses on the forms studied and explores a range of examples, rather than the specific products set by Eduqas. • Chapter 3: Component 1, Section B and Chapter 5: Component 2, Sections A and B focus on the products set by Eduqas for assessment from 2024 onwards. The set products change periodically. You will need to refer to the latest version of the Eduqas GCSE Media Studies Specification (available on the Eduqas website) for the current set products. Key Features and Structure of the Book The book is structured around important aspects of the specification and the individual components that will be assessed. Each chapter includes the following features: • Example analyses of a range of media forms and products, including products set by Eduqas as well as wider examples, to extend your knowledge and understanding of each form. Identified within these examples are the main codes and conventions of the various media forms that you will need to analyse when you study the set products and prepare for the unseen resources in the examination. • Key Terms: Definitions of the terminology that is specific to Media Studies. You will need to use this terminology to demonstrate your knowledge and understanding of the theoretical framework in each component. • Top Tips: Brief advice to help you gain the most from your studies and prepare for the assessments. • Quickfire questions to reinforce your learning. You can use these to test your knowledge and understanding in each chapter. You will also find the Quickfire questions helpful to revisit as you revise for the written examinations. Introduction Key Term Top Tip Quickfire Activity Stretch and Challenge

9 • Activities: Exercises that help you to apply your knowledge and understanding to an analytical task or set of questions, for example applying a theory to a product. • Stretch and Challenge: Tasks to extend your knowledge and understanding by undertaking some further research or independent work. These exercises will help you to develop a broader and deeper grasp of the subject. The book is organised into chapters based on the course specification. Chapters 1 and 2 These chapters introduce you to GCSE Media Studies. Chapter 1 outlines the theoretical framework of media, which is the basis for exploring all elements of the specification. The framework consists of: • Media language • Representation • Media industries • Audiences. These areas are explained using specific media terminology and supported by concrete examples. Chapter 1 also introduces you to the theoretical perspectives and contexts of media that you will need to study in relation to the set products. Chapter 2 provides an overview of the specification, giving a summary of the forms, products and areas of the framework that you will study in each component. Chapters 3 and 4 These chapters explore Component 1, Exploring the Media, in detail. Chapter 3 examines the broad range of forms and products that are studied in Sections A and B of Component 1. Section A features analysis of a range of examples to deepen your understanding of each form and develop your analytical skills. Chapter 4 explains how Component 1 will be assessed. Chapters 5 and 6 The focus of these chapters is Component 2, Understanding Media Forms and Products. Here you will study Television in Section A, and Music (music videos and online media) in Section B. Chapter 5 explores each form in depth, including an overview of the industry and an outline of the genre conventions for the different options offered in the specification. Analysis of examples from the set and wider products is included, linked to contexts and theoretical perspectives. The assessment of Component 2 is explained in Chapter 6. Chapters 7 and 8 These chapters focus on the non-exam assessment, offering guidance on the production process, from responding to the set brief and undertaking research to planning the finished product. There are tips to help you to create a successful production and examples from past GCSE student projects to demonstrate the required levels of skill in each form. Chapter 8 explains the Statement of Aims that must be submitted with the production and offers advice on how to complete it. Introduction

Chapter 9 This chapter will help you to prepare for the written examinations. There is an explanation of how the structure of each component will appear in the exam, with some example questions and suggestions for points that could be included in a response. The chapter offers tips and advice on how to approach the exams, including time management, interpreting questions and structuring extended responses. Chapter 10 The theories and theoretical perspectives that you need to study in relation to media products are summarised in Chapter 10. Glossary This provides a reference of the media-specific terminology used in the book. What is Expected from You This student book gives a detailed overview of the specification, the theoretical framework and the forms and products that you will study. It is important that you develop good study habits and take responsibility for your learning. • Throughout the GCSE course you will explore the set products and will need to make your own detailed notes on these. Your notes will be extremely useful when you revise for the examinations. • Additionally, you will need to study at least two further examples of products from each form in Component 1, Section A. Looking at wider examples will develop your knowledge and understanding of the form and will help you to practise your skills in preparation for the unseen analysis in the exam. • Review your notes regularly and revise the key terms and theoretical perspectives. This will help you to consolidate and reinforce the work you complete in class. • Undertake some additional research into the topics and products that you study. You could, for example, find out a little more about the historical context of a product you have analysed or research the media organisation that produced it. • Prepare for the non-exam assessment, where you will work independently and apply your knowledge and understanding to a practical production. You could keep a notebook of ideas for new media products or draft some designs in the form you intend to complete. In advance of the actual production, you could undertake some practice tasks, for example by using the sample briefs outlined in Chapter 7. • The Eduqas website, www.eduqas.co.uk, has many materials to support your learning. The specification is an important document that outlines all of the areas for study. There are also additional resources that your teacher might recommend. • In order to prepare for the exams you should practise writing responses under timed conditions. The Sample Assessment Materials, also available on the Eduqas website, will provide you with some example questions. Use the glossary (pages 254–264) in your revision – make sure you understand each term and use terminology in your examination responses. Top Tip The additional examples analysed in Chapter 3 will give an indication of the types of product that you could study. Top Tip Use the Quickfire questions and Activities in this book to reinforce your learning. Top Tip Use the Stretch and Challenge tasks in this book to extend your knowledge and understanding of the subject. Top Tip WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Media Studies Revised Edition 10

Introduction The WJEC GCSE Media Studies Specification This book is designed for learners following the Eduqas GCSE Media Studies specification in England and Northern Ireland. Centres in Wales will study the WJEC GCSE Media Studies specification, which has significant differences in content and structure from the Eduqas qualification. The structure of the WJEC specification is summarised below: Unit Assessment Forms and products 1. Exploring the Media: 30% of qualification Written examination: 1 hour 30 minutes; 60 marks Advertising, video games, newspapers and music All products chosen by the teacher following criteria set out in the specification 2. Understanding Television and Film: 30% of qualification Written examination: 1 hour 30 minutes; 60 marks Television: one television programme chosen from four options set by WJEC Film: one film chosen by the teacher following criteria set out in the specification 3. Creating Media: 40% of qualification Non-exam assessment: 80 marks Choice of briefs in the following forms: Television, Magazines, Film, Music, Advertising Main Differences in the WJEC specification • The structure of the units and assessments is different; as detailed in the tables here. • Some of the forms are explored in different ways. Magazines and radio, for example, are studied only in relation to the music topic; film is studied in greater depth. • Most of the products for study will be chosen by the teacher. The television product will be selected from a choice of options set by WJEC. • The specification includes a Welsh dimension and the television topic involves the study of a product that is made or set in Wales. Set products include options in the Welsh language. • The non-exam assessment includes research, planning and reflective analysis tasks that are assessed in addition to the production. Similarities There are similarities, however, and this book will be relevant to the WJEC specification in the following ways: • The theoretical framework underpins both specifications and the key concepts of media language, representations, media industries and audiences are the basis for exploring and creating the media. Chapter 1 of this book introduces learners to these concepts and defines much of the subject-specific terminology that should be applied when studying the media. The sections in Chapters 3 and 5 that outline the codes and conventions of print and audio-visual products will help learners to develop the analytical skills that they need. 11

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Media Studies Revised Edition • The same forms are studied in both specifications and the introduction to each form or industry in Chapters 3 and 5 will provide learners with background information that might apply to the chosen products. Some of the Eduqas set products might be appropriate to study for the WJEC specification. The table below outlines the WJEC qualification in more detail and includes examples of the ways in which this book is relevant. WJEC specification Area of the framework / key concepts Products Assessment Relevant sections of this book Unit 1 Section A: Advertising and Video Games Representation (gender) Print products representing men and women: contemporary advertisements and video game covers; at least one historical (pre-1990) print advertisement One stepped question based on unseen printbased resource material and one product learners have studied in the same media form related to advertising, video games or newspapers Chapter 3: advertising section and analysis of examples Possible overlap with Eduqas set product Quality Street advertisement, 1956 (Chapter 1) Unit 1 Section A: Newspapers Representation (events) One national or local newspaper representing at least one event Chapter 3: newspapers section and analysis of examples Possible overlap with Eduqas set products the Sun, the Guardian Unit 1 Section B: Music Media language, representation, media industries and audiences • Two contemporary music magazines and one of their websites • One contemporary music video and one music video pre-1990 • Two contemporary music radio programmes • Examples of social media in relation to one artist One stepped question and two single questions Chapter 5: music industry information; analysis of examples of music videos, websites and social/participatory media Possible overlap with Eduqas set products ‘Bad Blood’, ‘Good As Hell’, ‘Uptown Funk’, ‘Intentions’, ‘Rio’ Unit 2 Section A: Wales on Television Media language, representation, media industries and audiences One television programme chosen from four options set by WJEC One stepped question based on the set ‘Wales on Television’ product. Chapter 5: television industry information; analysis of examples of television sequences Unit 2 Section B: Contemporary Hollywood Film One Hollywood franchise film and its marketing, such as posters, trailers and websites One stepped question and two single questions. Chapter 3: film marketing section and analysis of examples of film posters; film industry section 12

WJEC specification Area of the framework / key concepts Products Assessment Relevant sections of this book Unit 3: Creating Media Media language, representation and audiences Production in one of: • Television: audio-visual or online media • Magazines: print or online media • Film: audio-visual or print media • Music: audio-visual or print media • Advertising: audio-visual or print media Non-exam assessment: research and planning; production; reflective analysis Chapter 7: process of researching, planning and creating media products (audio-visual, print or online) in the following forms: Television, Magazines, Film Marketing or Music Marketing Introduction 13

The Media Studies Theoretical Framework 1 OVERVIEW The GCSE Media Studies specification is based on a framework for exploring and creating media products. This provides a foundation for your studies in all components and will help you to explore the subject in a critical way. The theoretical framework is divided into four inter-related areas: • Media language: How the media communicate meanings through their forms and codes and conventions • Representation: How the media portray events, issues, individuals and social groups • Media industries: How the media industries’ processes of production, distribution and circulation affect media forms and platforms • Audiences: How media forms target, reach and address audiences, how audiences interpret and respond to them, and how audience members become producers themselves. Media Language Every media product you study will use media language to communicate meanings to audiences. Media producers encode particular messages and viewpoints that they want to convey, and audiences decode and interpret these meanings. The particular elements of media language that a media product uses will vary depending on the form and type of product. A music video, for example, will use moving images, whereas a DVD cover will use still images. Each media form and genre has different codes and conventions. You will learn about the particular elements of media language that are used in each form, including: visual codes, technical codes and language codes. This will form a ‘toolkit’ that you can apply to your analysis of any media product. Product An individual example of media output, such as an advert or a newspaper. Forms The different types of media, for example television and advertising. Codes and conventions The expected elements that will be included in products from particular media forms and genres. Social groups A way of categorising people, for example by gender (females form a social group). Platforms Different technological ways in which media products are made available to audiences (a website, for example, is an online platform). Target Aiming a product at a particular group of people; a target audience. Respond How media audiences receive and react to a media product. Encode Media producers include messages when creating products. These might be encoded through specific language or images. Decode Audiences interpret encoded messages. They might or might not decode the messages in the way the producers intended. Genre A category of media product defined by a set of codes and conventions, for example news or comedy. Key Terms 14

1 The Media Studies Theoretical Framework Analysing Media Products When you analyse a media product, it is important to consider the meanings communicated. It is helpful to start by thinking about the different elements of media language in a product, for example a headline in a newspaper or an image on a magazine cover. In Media Studies, we analyse products using a system called semiotics. We need to consider each element of media language, or sign, that is used and consider the following: • The denotation of a sign: this is its literal meaning. For example, a picture of an oak tree denotes a tree. • The connotation of the sign: this relates to the meanings we associate with a sign. So, a tree might connote nature, or something natural. A media producer could use a tree or leaf to encode this kind of meaning. For example, an advertisement for a cleaning product containing natural ingredients might feature a picture of a leaf. Similarly, an oak tree gives specific connotations of strength and power – as oak trees grow to be large, tall and solid – and stability and endurance – as oak trees can live for many hundreds of years. Connotations are often linked to culture. The oak tree has symbolic meaning in many cultures. The ‘royal oak’ is important in British history, for example, as it is the tree in which the future king, Charles II, hid during the English Civil War. An oak tree could connote history and tradition in a media product, but an audience that is unaware of the historical link might not understand this. Many media products are polysemic; they communicate different meanings and so can be decoded in a variety of ways. As noted above, a picture of an oak tree has many connotations and different audiences might interpret the same image in different ways. In addition, while you might begin by analysing each element of a product separately, you will need to consider the combination of those elements and the meanings communicated by the product as a whole. Analyse Explore media texts critically, considering the messages that are communicated. Semiotics A system for analysis that interprets meanings on two levels: denotation – the literal meaning – and connotation – the deeper or associated meaning. Sign Any element of a media product that communicates meaning, for example a photograph or logo. Key Terms Connote The way in which a sign communicates underlying meanings. (An image of a rose might connote romance.) Polysemic Communicating different meanings through the use of signs that can be interpreted in different ways. Key Terms Always analyse the connotations of a media product and the meanings that these communicate. Top Tip Find some examples of media products and analyse the connotations of the images (or signs) in the text. Stretch and Challenge 1.1 Look at each of these four images: • What is the denotation of the image? • What are the connotations of the image? • How might a producer use the image to communicate polysemic meanings in a media product? Activity 1.1 15

Analysing Codes of Media Language The main codes that apply across a range of different media forms are outlined below. The specific conventions of media language that apply to print products are discussed in Chapter 3, and those that apply to audio-visual and online products are explored in Chapter 5. Visual codes Visual codes are the elements that we see in a media product. All the media forms you will study, except radio, have visual codes that you can analyse. Visual codes relate to the images in media products, but also to elements such as the background on a magazine cover, logos and graphics. It is important to consider all aspects of the mise-en-scène when analysing a media product: • Colour palettes are used by media producers to encode meanings and can communicate powerful messages. There are many connotations associated with different colours: for example red can suggest passion or danger, while blue usually connotes calm. Colour can also be used to establish the mood and atmosphere in a media product. Yellows and oranges, for example, suggest warmth, whereas blues and greys are considered to be colder colours. • Location is very important to help an audience to understand where the product is set. The setting can also communicate messages. • Gesture codes are how people express themselves through their posture and body language. Gestures can convey emotion, often in combination with facial expressions. Shaking a fist, for example, implies anger, aggression and the intent to hurt. • Facial expressions communicate meanings that are easily recognised. A sad, surprised or angry facial expression, for example, will help an audience to understand the emotion someone feels. • Props can communicate messages about people and certain types of prop can signify a genre, such as guns in the action genre. A city location could connote danger in a crime drama. The fist bump gesture has become a popular form of greeting and celebration. Audio-visual products Products that have moving images and sound, for example music videos. Mise-en-scène The manner in which all the visual elements are placed within a frame or product, including the setting or background, props, costume and gestures. Key Terms What props would you expect to see in a TV medical drama? Quickfire 1.1 16 WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Media Studies Revised Edition

You will study this print advertisement for Quality Street from the 1950s. • Dress codes, including clothing, hair and make-up, convey messages about people in a media product, for example: • If a person is dressed smartly, it might suggest that they are neat and tidy, or that they care about their image. • A business suit might connote that a person has a responsible and well-paid job, that they are professional. • A particular style of clothing could identify a person with a social group. Ripped T-shirts and leather jackets, for example, are associated with ‘punk’ culture and could be used to connote rebelliousness. • Typically fashionable clothing might suggest that a person wants to ‘fit in’ and follow the latest trends. • Hair and make-up can also be used to convey elements such as personality or social status. Edward Scissorhands’ wild hair, for example, connotes his troubled mind, and pale make-up suggests he has been shut away from society. The scissorhands are a sign that he was unloved and they form a barrier between him and people who often see him as a threat, while he is actually a sensitive, gentle young man. Analysis of visual codes in a set product: Quality Street advert This advert for Quality Street uses bright colours to connote the pleasure of eating the chocolates. The two main females’ dress codes match the colours of the sweet wrappers: the female on the left wears red, green and white, similar to the strawberry chocolate, while the female on the right wears a long red dress and has golden hair, reflecting the Harrogate toffee. This connotes that the man in the image is making a decision about which female to choose, as well as which chocolate. The man wears a pinstriped suit and tie: formal clothing typical of the 1950s. The couple in the gold picture frame wear clothing that connotes history and upper-class status and further connotes that the chocolates are a luxury. 1 The Media Studies Theoretical Framework 17

Technical codes Technical codes are the ways in which media products are constructed using technical equipment such as cameras. Most contemporary media products are created with digital technology. Technical codes include the type of camera shot and the use of lighting. Print products also use technical codes of layout and design and use of typography. Audio-visual products also use technical codes of editing and sound. Camera shots The shot used in a media product can communicate a range of information. First, it is important to be able to identify the type of shot: • Close-up: The subject takes up most of the frame. A close-up of a character’s face shows their feelings and can help the audience to understand or empathise with the character. • Extreme close-up (ECU): The subject is very large and shown in detail; this suggests importance. An ECU might be used to demonstrate a product in an advert, for example, or to draw attention to a significant object in a television programme. • Medium close-up: This shows a person from the chest upwards. This type of shot is used frequently in television as it replicates the way we see people when we are close to them in real life. • Long shot: This shows a person, group or location in full. It can establish information about a character or location and might connote meanings about the action, for example that a character is in danger. • Low-angle shot: The camera is placed at a low level and looks up at a character or object which therefore appears large and dominant. An extremely low-angle shot looking directly upwards is called a worm’seye-view shot. • High-angle shot: This is where the camera is placed at a high level and looks down on a character or object, which appears small and insignificant. An extremely highangle shot looking directly downwards is called a bird’s- eye-view shot. Contemporary Current, of today: products that have been produced in recent years. Key Term This extreme close-up of a watch face might connote the significance of time passing if, for example, a major deadline is about to be reached. This low-angle shot makes the skateboarder look powerful and skillful. This close-up might connote positive emotion and confidence. This long shot establishes the location and shows the players around the ball to convey the action and communicate excitement. This high-angle shot of a city might connote that the institutions in the buildings are important, but the humans are insignificant. 18 WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Media Studies Revised Edition

Lighting It is important to consider the use of lighting in media products. There are four main parts to lighting: • High key: use of a key light and many filler lights to create bright lighting with few shadows. A magazine cover will often use high-key lighting to highlight the cover model. • Low key: use of a key light but fewer filler lights to create shadows and contrast between light and dark. A thriller might use low key-lighting to create a sense of mystery. • Artificial lighting: use of electric lighting, often in an indoor setting or studio. • Natural light: use of daylight, in an outdoor setting or from a window. Lighting is also used symbolically: bright light is usually associated with goodness and innocence, whereas darkness connotes sinfulness and evil. Language codes Nearly all media products use language – words – to create meanings: • Written language is used in print products, including headlines in a newspaper, magazine articles and slogans in advertisements. This is explored fully in Chapter 3. • Spoken language is used in audio-visual products, for example dialogue or narration in a television programme. This is explored in Chapter 5. The use of language is a key way in which media products address, or speak to, their audiences. Some products use a very friendly, informal mode of address, while others are more distant and formal. Genre Genre is a way of categorising media products. The concept often relates to film and television, but can be applied to many media forms and products. A genre is defined by a set of codes and conventions used in its products. Generic products are defined by a set of elements that are repeated across them. This repertoire of elements includes: • Visual iconography: The particular visual codes associated with a genre. A poster for a horror film, for example, is likely to make use of an isolated setting, possibly including a ‘haunted’ house, a dark colour palette and low-key lighting. • Technical codes: Different genres use technical codes in specific ways. Television dramas, for example, tend to feature many medium-close-up shots to establish the characters and their relationships. A dance music video will usually have fast-paced editing that matches the beat of the music. • Narrative: This is the way in which the story is told. Specific narrative techniques are used in different genres. A newspaper article, for example, will usually begin with a lead paragraph that summarises the issues. Narrative is discussed in detail below. • Characters: Most genres have an expected set of character ‘types’. Crime dramas, for example, will often feature a troubled police officer who solves the crime, whereas sitcoms often include a character who is trying to improve their social status. List three conventions used on the front covers of fashion magazines or music magazines. Quickfire 1.2 Look at a range of film posters and identify their genres. Stretch and Challenge 1.2 Key light The main light that shines directly on the person or object in the frame. Filler lights Additional lights placed around a person or object to reduce shadows. Slogan A short, punchy phrase that communicates key ideas about a product or issue. Dialogue The words spoken by characters in a scene, usually a conversation between two or more characters. Mode of address The way in which a text ‘speaks’ to an audience and positions them through language and other codes. Repertoire of elements A set of codes and conventions that are used in products from the same genre. Key Terms 19 1 The Media Studies Theoretical Framework

Theoretical perspectives on genre A product in a particular genre will usually use familiar conventions as well as some unexpected elements, as argued by theorist Steve Neale. This helps to make the product unique and ensures that audiences do not become bored with the same conventions. Audiences benefit from genre conventions as they know what to expect and enjoy the familiarity of consuming products in their favourite genres. Genres are also important to media industries as their appeal to specific audiences helps to guarantee the success of a product. Genres do not stay the same. They change over time for a number of reasons: • Genres need to develop in order to maintain the interest of audiences. • Technological developments allow producers to use new visual and technical codes. The Bond film posters set products, for example, demonstrate technical developments from hand-drawn imagery to layered photographic images. • Social and cultural contexts also influence genres, which might develop to reflect issues and events occurring in society at the time. Contemporary crime dramas, for example, reflect developments in forensic science when crimes are being solved. Many genre categories are quite broad, so subgenres often develop. These break a genre down into subdivisions that have their own conventions. Rock music, for example, has many subgenres, including grunge, progressive rock and alternative rock. Another way in which genres can develop is when conventions from two or more genres are used in the same product, called a hybrid. Hybridisation can breathe new life into a genre by creating something fresh and unexpected. It can also widen the audience for a product. A clear example of a hybrid film is Cowboys and Aliens (2011), which combined science fiction and western genre conventions. Narrative We are all familiar with the concept of a story. We read, hear and tell stories many times every day. All media products contain an element of storytelling or an account of events, for example a newspaper article. When we study narrative, however, we need to analyse how the story is told by considering how the events are ordered and which characters are shown to be the most important in the story. Structure Most narratives are based on some form of disruption or conflict that has to be resolved. The way in which these elements are organised and put together can vary depending on the form, genre and the individual product. Some narratives start at the beginning of a story and move chronologically through the events to the end. This ‘beginning–middle–end’ structure is called a linear narrative. It is easy to follow as everything happens in the ‘right’ order. In this type of narrative, each event usually happens as a result of another. This is called cause and effect, so the structure seems logical. Look at a range of programmes on a television listings website. Can you identify any hybrid products? Stretch and Challenge 1.3 Familiar conventions Elements that we would expect to see in a particular genre. (A convention of a television soap opera is the setting of a pub where characters regularly meet.) Unexpected elements Conventions that we would not necessarily expect to see in a genre to add an element of surprise or develop the genre. Appeal The element of a product that attracts a particular audience. Technological developments New technologies that enable media producers to create products in different ways, sometimes leading to changes in a genre. Subgenre A more specific genre within a broader genre. Hybrid A combination of two or more different genres in the same product. Disruption An event or action that interrupts the narrative. Conflict A clash between characters or groups of people. Linear narrative A narrative structure where the events happen in logical order, one after the other. Cause and effect Where one event causes another event to happen, such as a robbery causing the victim to have nightmares. Key Terms 20 WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Media Studies Revised Edition

This poster for Casino Royale, Daniel Craig’s first film as James Bond, creates enigma to ‘hook’ the audience. Tzvetan Todorov was a Bulgarian theorist who studied classic fairy tales and folk stories. His theory of narrative states that the following stages will occur: • Equilibrium: At the beginning, everything is calm and balanced; there is no conflict. • Disruption: An event or problem occurs to upset the balance. • Recognition: The characters realise that there is a problem. • Resolution: The problem is solved. • New equilibrium: Everything returns to a state of balance. Some media products, however, adopt a different approach to narrative. A non-linear narrative might begin part-way through a story or even at the end and then explore earlier events. Flashbacks or flashforwards might be used to help structure the narrative. This allows producers to hold information back from the audience, which might be revealed later on, and this can create intrigue and suspense. Crime dramas often begin with a murder and then work backwards to reveal information about why and by whom the murder was committed. Many products, even those with linear narrative structures, avoid revealing everything about a character or story at the beginning. Producers might offer some details and drop hints about what is to come, but leave some elements of mystery to keep the audience guessing. This is an example of an enigma code, a narrative code outlined by French literary theorist Roland Barthes. It engages the audience and encourages them to actively participate by trying to solve the ‘puzzles’ in the narrative. A film poster is likely to use enigmas to ‘hook’ the audience in and encourage them to look out for the trailers and watch the film. Many fairy tales have a clear linear narrative. Think of a television programme that follows Todorov’s narrative structure. Quickfire 1.3 Equilibrium A situation where everything is calm and settled; there is no conflict. Resolution When problems or disruptions are solved, or conflicts have been settled. Non-linear narrative A narrative where the events do not happen in chronological order. Flashback A scene where the narrative jumps back in time to show a past event. Flashforward A scene where the narrative jumps forwards in time to show a future event. Enigma code A mystery or puzzle. Media products often don’t tell all elements of the narrative at once, but withhold information to keep the audience guessing. Engage Keep an audience’s interest and involvement and, potentially, gain their loyalty. (A television drama series will try to engage the audience in the narrative and ensure that they watch every episode.) Key Terms 1 The Media Studies Theoretical Framework Look at a range of film posters, for example on IMDB. Identify the enigma codes used to entice the audience. Stretch and Challenge 1.4 21

WJEC/Eduqas GCSE Media Studies Most narratives end with a clear resolution to the disruption, where problems have been solved and there is often a ‘happy ending’ or sense of equilibrium. In addition, something has usually changed so the situation at the end is different from that at the start. Perhaps a threat to a community has been removed or a character has undergone a transformation. Some narratives might not end with a clear resolution. For example: • A news story might be ongoing, so a report on a particular day will not have a definite ending. • An episode of a TV drama series might end on a cliff-hanger to encourage the audience to watch the next episode in order to find out what happens. Theoretical perspectives on narrative Propp’s theory of narrative is one of the two key theories you need to know. (The other is Blumler and Katz’s Uses and Gratifications theory, see page 34.) Learn the main points of the theory and try to apply it to all the media products you study. Top Tip Transformation A major change. Characters are often transformed as a result of events that occur in the narrative. (A character might change their lifestyle after a health scare.) Cliff-hanger A structural device where the narrative is paused at a tense or exciting moment, which encourages the audience to watch the next episode. Quest A mission that a hero has to undertake or a goal that they need to achieve. Protagonist The main character in a narrative; also the hero in many narratives. Antagonist A character who is in opposition to the protagonist; also the villain in many products. Key Terms Find examples of narratives that do not have a clear ‘resolution’. Stretch and Challenge 1.5 Key Theory 1: Propp’s theory of narrative Vladimir Propp was a Russian theorist who studied the narrative structure of Russian folk tales and identified similar features in them. Key elements of his theory, presented in his book The Morphology of the Folktale in 1928, are: • There are 31 key stages in narrative structures, including: • A villain deceives a victim. • A hero is dispatched on a quest. • The hero is given a magical power or object. • The villain is defeated. • The hero marries the ‘princess’. • There are eight main character types that appear in narratives: • Hero – the main character or protagonist who drives the narrative forward and determines the outcome • Villain – the antagonist who acts in opposition to the hero and creates the disruption or conflict • ‘Princess’ – often marries the hero and so can be seen as a ‘prize’ • Father of the ‘princess’ • Donor – gives the hero an important item or object • Helper – assists the hero in the quest • Dispatcher – sends the hero on the quest • False hero – claims to be a hero but is actually dishonest. Superman is an iconic superhero character and a typical Proppian hero. Name three media products where the hero defeats a villain. Quickfire 1.4 Revised Edition 22

RkJQdWJsaXNoZXIy Nzc1OTg=