Pearson BTEC National Applied Psychology Book 1

Revision summary Content areasA andB Cognitiveapproach Key concept1:Reconstructivememory Evaluation What is it? Memories reconstructed from fragments into meaningfulwhole. Roleof schema inmemory Mentalpackageof knowledge. • Shortening–bits cut to t schemas. • Rationalisation–detailsdistorted to t schemas. • Confabulation–detailsmadeup to ll gaps inmemory. Application toEWT Eyewitnesses not accurate,due to schemas. Somememoriesareaccurate Personally importantordistinctive details are remembered. Key study:Bartlett (1932) Evaluation Aims Recallofunfamiliar story affectedby schemas? Procedure Britishparticipants read Warof theGhosts story and then told to anotherperson and soon (serial reproduction). Findings Recall transformed story– itwas shortened, leout supernaturalbits,phrases changed tobe familiar. Conclusions Schemas in€uence recall so storymoremeaningful, memory is reconstructive. Realistic theoryand research Everyday task,not arti cialmaterials, conclusions relevant to real life. Unscienti c research Proceduresnot standardisedor consistent,different experiences, conclusionsmaybe wrong. Key concept2: Cognitivepriming Evaluation What is it? Experienceofone stimulus (prime) affects response to later stimulus. Roleof cognitive scripts Expectationsof social situation (e.g. restaurant script). Typesof cognitivepriming • Repetition– same stimulus again. • Semantic– later stimulus related inmeaning toprime. • Associative– later stimulus associatedwithprimebutnot in meaning. Evidence supports cognitive scripts Playing violent video games, easier recallof aggressive scripts (Möller andKrahé2009). Lackof replication Repeating priming studiesproducesdifferent ndings. Therefore, ndings are €ukes, conceptmaynotbe scienti c. Key study:Harris etal . (2009) Evaluation Aims Doeswatching TV food adverts cause snacking? Procedure (1) Children– cartoon+ foodorno-food ads. (2)Adults– TVprogramme+ food (fun-snackingorhealth- promoting)orno-food ads. (3)Measured snacks eaten. Findings (1) Childrenwho saw food ads ate45%more snacks thanno-food ad group. (2)Adultswho saw ‘fun’ ads atemore thanothers,unrelated topriorhunger. Conclusions TV adsprime snack consumption, short-term and long-term. Application to theproblemof obesity Preventpriming in€uence of TV snack adverts,promotehealthy eating andpreventobesity. Arti cial conditions Watching adverts alone in classroomnot real-life environment, thereforenot meaningful ndings. Key concept3: Cognitivebiases Evaluation Whatare they? Errors in informationprocessing,undermine rationaldecision-makingbut speed itup. Fundamentalattribution error (FAE) Explainingotherpeople’s behaviour as a resultof theirpersonalitynot situation. Con rmationbias Notice, store, recall information that con rms existingbeliefs. Hostileattributionbias Neutralbehaviour seen as a threatening, aggressive response. Applications to real-lifebehaviour Hostile attributionbias explains aggression, con rmationbias explains tribalpolitics,understanding it canhelp reduce con€ict. The FAE isnotuniversal Only in individualist cultures e.g.USA (not collectivist e.g. China). Key study: Lous andPalmer (1974) Evaluation Aims Will changingoneword in a sentence affectmemory of car speed? Procedure Filmsof car accidents, ‘Abouthow fastwere the cars goingwhen they____ (into) eachother?’ Findings Verb in€uenced estimates, smashed 40.5mph, collided 39.3, bumped 38.1, hit 34.0, contacted 31.8. Conclusions Changingonewordbiased responses (later research foundmemoryof event actually changes). Experimental control Lab setting, e.g. controlwitness viewpoint, so changeofword affected estimates. Biased sampleofparticipants Young students,more accurate eyewitnesses thanolderpeople,hard to generalise ndings. Socialapproach Key concept1: Conformity Evaluation What is it? Going alongwith a groupdue to invisible ‘pressure’. Normative social in„uence (NSI) Acceptnormsof group (conform) tobe liked and avoid rejection. Emotionalprocess, stronger in stressful situations. Informational social in„uence (ISI) Changebehaviour/opinions whenwebelieveothers are right/havebetter information. Cognitiveprocess, especiallyneworunclear situations. Research supportsNSI Asch’s participantswent alongwith group to avoiddisapproval.Nopublicpressure, no conformity. NSIand ISIwork together in real life Lower conformitywithdissenter, who gives social support (NSI), and is sourceof information (ISI). Key study:Asch (1951) Evaluation Aims Wouldpeople conformwithobviouslywrong answers givenby a group? Procedure Groupof studentsmatched line lengths.Onlyone participantwas genuine,othersdeliberately gavewrong answers. Findings Participants conformedon36.8%of trials,25%never conformed. Conclusions People conformmostly to avoid rejection (NSI).But peopleusually act independently. Levelof control Lab, standardised procedure, so irrelevant variables cannot explain conformity. Limitedapplicationof ndings Male USparticipants, so ndingshard to generalise towomen andother cultures,mayunderestimate true conformity level. Key concept2: Typesof conformity Evaluation Internalisation We agreeprivately andpubliclywithothers, permanent,due to ISI. Compliance We agreepubliclybutnotprivately, temporary conformity,due toNSI. Identi cation Combinationofother types, agreepublicly and privatelybecausewe identifywith group,only lastswhilewe are members (Kelman1958). Support forKelman’s three types Compliance (Asch1951), identi cation (Haney etal .1973), internalisation (Sherif1935). Conformity types lack in„uence SPS minimisespersonality and effectof identi cation (Fromm1973). Key study:Haney etal . (1973) Evaluation Aims Is guardbehaviourdue to sadisticpersonalityorbrutal situation? Procedure StanfordPrison Study (SPS), volunteer students played guardorprisoner,uniforms forboth roles, guardshad power. Findings Both identi edwith roles, guards aggressive,prisoners rebelliousbut then subdued, study ended early. Conclusions Everyone conformed to roles (identi cation), including visitors and researchers,powerof situations. The studywas controlled e.g. emotionally stable students selected and randomly given roles, so ndings due to identi cation. TheSPS lacked realism Participants play-actedbasedonbelief abouthow guards andprisoners shouldbehave, sonot real-life conformity. Key concept3:Social categorisation Evaluation What is it? Groupmembershipbasedon shared characteristics, assumemembers all the same anddifferent fromother groups. What isa stereotype? Fixed viewof aperson’sbehaviour/ characterbasedon social category. Howare stereotypes formed? Observe and imitate social information (SLT). Whatare the effectsof stereotypes? • Positive– simpli es interactions, reduces cognitive effort. • Negative– can lead toprejudice,distort andbias social judgements. Research supporting stereotyping Halfofwhiteparticipants thought blackmanwasholding razor, racist stereotypebiasedmemory (Allport andPostman1947). Effectsof stereotypes Don’t inevitably lead toprejudice. Canhold a stereotypebutnot agree. Key study: Chatard etal . (2007) Evaluation Aims Does gender stereotype affect recallofmaths test results? Procedure Students rate agreementwith general gender stereotype, then rateown abilities, recall lastmaths/arts results. Findings Bothboys and girls given stereotype reminder overestimated arts results, girlsunderestimatedmaths results. Conclusions Recallofpreviousmathsperformancebiased in directionof gender stereotype,may affect female career choice. Tackling stereotypes Awarenessof gender stereotype encourageswomen into science andmaths careers. Roleofparticipants’ expectations Some studentsmayhave realised stereotypes linked to recallof results, sowrotedownwhat they thought researcherswanted. Assumptionsof the cognitive approach Informationprocessingandbehaviour Internalmentalprocesses (e.g.perception,memory) operate in stages tomake senseof theworld. The computeranalogy Like computersweprocess through input- processing-output.Hardware (brain), soware (information). Assumptionsof the social approach Behaviour in social context People are social animals,psychologists study the in€uenceofothers tounderstandbehaviour (e.g. in conformity). People, cultureand society Differences canbeunderstood in termsof individualist (ownneeds) vs. collectivist (community’sneeds). Assumptionsof the learning approach Behaviour isa learned response Classical conditioning–Pavlov’sdogs, learning through association. Operant conditioning– reinforcementofbehaviour from environment. The rolesofobservationand imitation Weobservebehaviour and imitate rolemodels, especially if they are rewarded. Assumptionsof thebiological approach Behaviour is in„uencedbyourbiology Physicalbasis tobehaviour– centralnervous system (brain), genes,neurochemistry (e.g. serotonin). Behaviourand evolution Natural selectionof survival-promotingbehaviours, genespassedon (Darwin1859). Overviewof fourapproaches Learningapproach Key concept1: Classical conditioning (CC) Evaluation What is it? Learning through associationof two stimuli with eachother (Pavlov). Before conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS e.g. food)producesunconditioned response (UCR e.g. salivation),other stimuli areneutral (NS). During conditioning UCS+NS (e.g.bell) repeatedly paired, associateNS+UCS. AŒer conditioning NSnow a conditioned stimulus (CS) producing response (CR)on itsown. Application toaversion therapy Electric shock (UCS) givenwhen reading gambling phrases (NS),become CSproducing discomfort (CR). Incomplete explanationof learning Can’t explain complex learning, e.g.phobiasnot maintainedover time through CC. Key study:Watson andRayner (1920) Evaluation Aims Emotional responses (fear) canbe learned through classical conditioning. Procedure LittleAlbert shownwhite rat and loud noisemade (hammeronmetalbar)whenhe reached out for it. Findings Showed fear and avoidanceof ratby second session, criedwhen it approached. Showed CRof fear to otherwhite furryobjects, lessenedover time. Conclusions Easy to condition fear response in children which generalises. Somegood experimental controls Controlled environment withno irrelevant stimuli, ndings due to CCnotother variables. Poorgeneralisability Just Little Albert studied, emotionally stable, unlikemostbabies, ndingsnot applicable toothers. Key concept2:Operant conditioning (OC) Evaluation What is it? Learning from consequences. Consequence1– reinforcement Increasesprobability ofbehaviour repeating. • Positive–pleasant consequence. • Negative– removeunpleasant stimulus. Consequence2–punishment Reducesprobabilityof behaviour repeating. • Positive–unpleasant consequence. • Negative– removepleasant stimulus. Supporting research evidence Animal andhuman lab studies showOC, alsobrainbasisof reinforcement (Chase etal .2015). Nota complete explanationof learning Explainshowphobias maintainedover timebutnothow acquired in rstplace. Key study:Skinner (1932) Evaluation Aims Is food a reinforcer in rats? Procedure Foodpelletsdispensed in a Skinnerbox every time ratspressed a lever. Findings Rats varied in time it took for them topress at ahigh rate (aer either rst, secondor hpresses). Conclusions Behaviour causedbynatural laws,OC is relevant to everyday life, justone reinforcement can changebehaviour. OC in educationand childcare Schoolsuse rewards andpunishers to changebehaviour. Problemswithgeneralisation Sweeping conclusions about humansbasedon rats, ignoring mentalprocesses,humanshave conscious insight. Key concept3:Social learning theory (SLT) Evaluation What is it? Indirect learning:observation, vicarious reinforcement and imitation. Modelling (1)demonstrating abehaviour to another, (2)person imitates thebehaviour. Observation Observerwatchesmodel’sbehaviour, retains inmemory. Imitation Actof copying themodel’sbehaviour,more likely ifobserver identi eswithmodel (same gender, high status, etc.). Vicarious reinforcement Observing themodel receive reinforcementofbehaviourmakesobservermore likely to imitate. Evidence supportingSLT Imitation more likelywhenmodel is rewarded (Bandura1965), also in chickens whenhigh status (Nicol andPope 1999). Nota complete explanation Aggressionmore similar in identical thannon-identical twins (Kendler etal 2015), SLT cannot explain role of genetics. Key study:Bandura etal . (1961) Evaluation Aims Would children imitate an aggressive, same-sex model? Procedure Childrenobserved adulthitBobodoll, controls saw adultplaywith toyornomodel.All children frustrated and thenplayedwith toys. Findings Childrenwhoobserved aggression towards Bobomost likely to imitate,boys imitatedmalemodel most. Conclusions Aggression imitatedby children, especially same sex (identi cation). Learningaggressivebehaviours Childrenobserve and imitate aggressionwithin family, implications for socialpolicy. Arti cial environment In real-life situations childrenwouldhave tobe aggressive towardspeoplenotdolls, low generalisability. Biologicalapproach Key concept1:Genes Evaluation Whatare they? StrandsofDNA carry ‘instructions’ forphysical and non-physical characteristics. Genotype The genes you inherit. Phenotype How genes are expressed in interactionwith environment. The SRY gene On Y chromosome, switchesonother genes, embryo develops testes and testosterone. An interactionistapproach e.g. versionof BRCA gene linked tobreast cancerbutnot allwith the gene get cancer. Riskofoversimpli cation Noone gene for abehaviour. Small contributionsofmany genes, interactionswith environment. Key concept2:Neuroanatomy Evaluation What is it? Structureofnervous system. Localisationofbrain function e.g. • Motor area– controlsmovementsonopposite sideofbody. • Somatosensory area– represents skin sensitivityofbody (e.g.hands). • Visual area– receives information from right and le visual elds. Sexdifferences inbrain Males greater totalbrain volume. Females bigger thalamus, stronger connections, thicker cortex. Support for sexdifferences MRI found womenhave stronger connections betweenhemispheres,may explainbetter multitasking (Ingalhalikar etal .2014). Structurenot function Sexdifferences in structuredonotmeandifferences in functioning, very few conclusionsbutmuch speculation. Key study:Harlow (1868) Evaluation Aimsandprocedure RecordeddetailsofPhineasGage case, indicated aspectsofhowbrainworks. Findings Ironbar throughGage’s skull and frontpartofbrain, changed personality, ‘no longerGage’. Conclusions Intellect impairedbutnot lost,damage to lehemisphere so somebrain functions localised. Aheadofhis time Carefulobservations linkingbrain area (localisation) tobehaviour. Unjusti ed conclusions Can’tmakebefore- and-aer comparisons, ampli es effects. Key concept3:Neurochemistry Evaluation What is it? How activityof substances innervous system affectbrain andbehaviour. Neurotransmitters Communicationbetweenneurons across synapses, e.g. serotonin (low levels linked todepression, activity changedby drugs). Sexhormones • Ovaries (females)produceoestrogen– affects female reproductive organs andmenstrual cycle. • Testes (males)produce testosterone– affectsmaleorgans, linked to aggression. Support for sexhormones Transgender women (femalehormones)decreased aggression (VanGoozen etal .1995). Contradictory research No consistent effect of sexhormoneson visuo-spatial skills, effects are realbut limited (Slabbekoorn etal .1999). Key study:Deady etal . (2006) Evaluation Aims Is there a linkbetween testosterone andmaternalpersonality in females? Procedure Females completedBSRIplusquestionnaire, salivary testosteronemeasured. Findings High testosterone linked tomasculinity, lowermaternal personality/reproductive ambition. Conclusions Women’smaternal tendenciesdue to testosterone, biologicalbasis tomaternalpersonality. Support fromother research Aggressive femaleprisonershadhigher testosterone (Dabbs andHargrove1997). Correlationnot causation Variables correlatewith eachotherbutdoesn’tmean one causesother,needmoredata. Key concept4:Evolutionarypsychology Evaluation What is it? Darwin (1859) explainednatural selection–when resources are scarce, genes thatproduce characteristicshelping survival (and reproduction) are selected andpassedon. Environmentof evolutionaryadaptation (EEA) Humanminds and behaviour evolved to adapt to lifeon theAfrican savannah. Genome lag The gapbetween changes inour environment and adaptive changes to genome. Sexual selection Characteristics that threaten survival continuebecause attractive topotentialmates. Support forgenome lag Partner preferences changed in last100 years (e.g. women lessdependent), changes in culture butnot genome. Problemswith theEEA concept Human evolutiondidn’t stop in EEA (e.g. ability to digest lactose), some characteristics evolved muchmore recently. Key study:Buss etal . (1992) Evaluation Aims Ismale/female jealousydifferent? Procedure Asked studentswhich ismoreupsetting–partner falling in lovewith another (emotional in delity)orhaving sexwith another (sexual in delity).Physiologicalmeasures, e.g.pulse rate. Findings 60%men (17%women) chose sexual in delity,83%women (40%men) chose emotional in delity, correlatedwithphysiological measures. Conclusions Male sexual jealousyprevents raising anotherman’s child, female emotional jealousyprevents losingpartner’s resources. Physiologicalandpsychological measures Studyusedobjective and subjectivemeasures, showedbiological basisof jealousy. Limited sampleofparticipants From one cultureonly, so couldnot show that jealousy isuniversal,doesnot fully support evolutionary explanation. 38 39 Unit1:Psychologicalapproachesandapplications 02_U01BTECPsychologyY1.indd 38-39 21/05/2019 13:34 How to use this book Unit 1 and Unit 2 both open with a spread which has: • A set of questions to start you thinking about the content to come. • A detailed table of contents. Extra material Unit 1 Content areas A+B and C end with: Summaries to revise from. Multiple-choice questions to test yourself. Assessment guidance to help supply the right material in your exam answers. Revision guidance. Practice questions, answers and feedback to see how teachers mark student answers. Unit 2 Learning aims A, B and C+D end with: Assessment guidance to guide you in writing your internally assessed report. Contents ContentareasAandB:Psychologicalapproachesandassumptionsandkey concepts A1Approachesandassumptions Overviewof four approaches 10 B1 Cognitiveapproach Key concept1 and key study:Reconstructivememory andBartlett (1932) 12 Key concept2 and key study: Cognitivepriming andHarris etal . (2009) 14 Key concept3 and key study: Cognitivebiases and Lo‚us andPalmer (1974) 16 B2Socialapproach Key concept1 and key study: Conformity andAsch (1951) 18 Key concept2 and key study: Typesof conformity andHaney etal . (1973) 20 Key concept3 and key study:Social categorisation and Chatard etal . (2007) 22 B3 Learningapproach Key concept1andkey study:Classical conditioningandWatsonandRayner (1920) 24 Key concept2 and key study:Operant conditioning andSkinner (1932) 26 Key concept3 and key study:Social learning theory andBandura etal . (1961) 28 B4Biologicalapproach Introduction and key concept1: InŽuenceofbiologyonbehaviour andGenes 30 Key concept2 and key study:Neuroanatomy andHarlow (1868) 32 Key concept3 and key study:Neurochemistry andDeady etal . (2006) 34 Key concept4 and key study:Evolutionarypsychology andBuss etal . (1992) 36 Revision summary Multiple-choicequestions Assessmentand revisionguidance Practicequestions,answersand feedback 38 40 42 46 Contentarea C:Applicationofpsychologicalapproaches C1Useofpsychology toexplain contemporary issuesof aggression in society Cognitive approach 48 Social approach 50 Learning approach 52 Biological approach 54 C2Useofpsychology inbusiness toexplainand inƒuence consumerbehaviour Cognitive approach 56 Social approach 58 Learning approach 60 Biological approach 62 C3Applicationofpsychology to explaingender Cognitive approach 64 Social approach 66 Learning approach 68 Biological approach 70 Revision summary Multiple-choicequestions Assessmentand revisionguidance Practicequestions,answersand feedback 72 74 76 78 What ishappening in these people’sheads? What isgoingon in their bodies? How is theirbehaviouraffecting eachother? Howhave theirpast experiences affected them? Thereare somanydifferent waysof explaining the same behaviour–what is thebest approach to take? Unit 1 Psychological approaches and applications Read importantadviceon assessmentand revision beforeyoubegin! 8 9 02_U01BTECPsychologyY1.indd 8-9 21/05/2019 13:31 Content areas or learning aims Unit 1 is divided into content areas A, B and C (because it is externally assessed). Unit 2 is divided into learning aims A, B, C and D (because it is internally assessed). Content areasA andB Multiple-choicequestions Overviewof fourapproaches . The computeranalogy isanassumptionof the: (a) Biological approach. (b) Social approach. (c) Cognitive approach. (d) Learning approach. . Anassumptionof the socialapproach is: (a) Informationprocessing. (b) Classical conditioning. (c) Behaviour is affectedby culture. (d) The roleofneurochemistry. . The learningapproach involves: (a) Observation and imitation. (b) The roleofgenes. (c) The roleof thenervous system. (d) Input-processing-output. . ‘Behaviourevolves throughnatural selection’ is anassumptionof the: (a) Social approach. (b) Learning approach. (c) Cognitive approach. (d) Biological approach. Reconstructivememory /Bartlett . A schema is: (a) An accuratememory. (b) Apackageof stored knowledge. (c) Aphysicalpartof thebrain. (d) An inaccuratememory. . Inventingdetailsofamemory is: (a) Shortening. (b) Rationalisation. (c) Fragmenting. (d) Confabulation. . Bartlett’smethodwas: (a) Serial reconstruction. (b) Serial recording. (c) Serial reupholstering. (d) Serial reproduction. . OneweaknessofBartlett’s studywas: (a) Itwasunscientic. (b) Itdidnot investigate reconstructivememory. (c) Itused a familiar story. (d) Itwasunrealistic. Cognitivepriming /Harris etal . . A ‘prime’ is: (a) A later stimulus. (b) The third stimulus. (c) An earlier stimulus. (d) Always visual. . ‘Two stimuli thatmean the same thing’ is priming: (a) Repetition. (b) Associative. (c) Script. (d) Semantic. . Harris etal . studiedpriming in: (a) TV adverts. (b) Children’sbooks. (c) Magazines. (d) Facebooknews feeds. . A studyby supports cognitive scripts: (a) Möller andKrahé. (b) Möller andHarris. (c) Harris andKrahé. (d) Morris andKrahé. Cognitivebiases / Lo usandPalmer . ‘Noticing things that supportyour current beliefs’ is: (a) Conrmationbias. (b) Fundamental attribution error. (c) Hostile attributionbias. (d) Logical errorbias. . Assuming someone trodonyour foot deliberately isanexampleof: (a) Conrmationbias. (b) Irrational thinkingbias. (c) Hostile attributionbias. (d) Social interactionbias. . Thehighest speedestimate in Lo usand Palmer’s studywas for: (a) Hit. (b) Contacted. (c) Smashed. (d) Crashed. . The fundamentalattributionerror is found: (a) In every culture. (b) In cultures like China. (c) Mainly in individualist cultures. (d) Whenpeoplebelievebehaviour is causedby situational factors. Conformity /Asch . Weagreewith thegroup toavoid rejection: (a) Conformative social inŠuence. (b) Normative social inŠuence. (c) Informational social inŠuence. (d) Performative social inŠuence. . Informational social in… uence is: (a) An emotionalprocess. (b) A cognitiveprocess. (c) Unlikely innew situations. (d) Rarewhen an expert ispresent. . Asch’soverall conformity ratewas (a) 36.8%. (b) 25%. (c) 75%. (d) 63.2%. . Asch’s†ndingsapply: (a) Tomales and females. (b) To all cultures. (c) Only to females. (d) Only to individualist cultures. Typesof conformity /Haney etal . . Three typesof conformitywere identi†edby: (a) Sherif. (b) Asch. (c) Zimbardo. (d) Kelman. . Apermanent typeof conformity is: (a) Compliance. (b) Internalisation. (c) Identication. (d) Normative social inŠuence. . The studybyHaney etal . illustrates: (a) Identication. (b) Internalisation. (c) Compliance. (d) The roleofpersonality. . Frommargued that the typesof conformity: (a) Are extremelypowerful. (b) Ignore the roleof the situation. (c) Arenot equally important. (d) Don’t affectbehaviourmuch. Social categorisation / Chatard etal . . Stereotypesare: (a) A formof social categorisation. (b) Flexible. (c) Nearly always accurate. (d) Causedbygenes. . Stereotypes: (a) Can lead toprejudice. (b) Increase cognitiveprocessing effort. (c) Are alwaysnegative. (d) Cannotbe explainedby social learning theory. . Chatard etal . found that: (a) Boyswerebetter atmaths thangirls. (b) Boysunderestimated theirmarks in arts subjects. (c) Gender stereotypes can affectmemory. (d) Girlsoverestimated theirmarks inmaths. . Oneweaknessof thekey study is that itmay havebeenaffectedby: (a) Gender stereotypes. (b) Participants’ expectations. (c) Racist stereotypes. (d) Participants’ career choices. Classical conditioning /Watsonand Rayner . InPavlov’s studies, foodwas the: (a) Unconditioned response. (b) Conditioned stimulus. (c) Unconditioned stimulus. (d) Neutral stimulus. . A er conditioning, theneutral stimulusbecomes the: (a) Unconditioned stimulus. (b) Conditioned stimulus. (c) Conditioned response. (d) Unconditioned response. . LittleAlbert learneda fear response to: (a) A loudnoise. (b) The soundof abell. (c) SeveralŠuffywhiteobjects. (d) Just awhite rat. . One strengthof thekey studywas: (a) Itused justoneparticipant. (b) LittleAlbertwas anunusual child. (c) Ithadgood experimental controls. (d) Thendingsweregeneralisable. Operant conditioning /Skinner . Abehaviour followedbyapleasant consequence: (a) Negativepunishment. (b) Positivepunishment. (c) Negative reinforcement. (d) Positive reinforcement. . Grounding someone forbadbehaviour isanexample of: (a) Positive reinforcement. (b) Negativepunishment. (c) Positivepunishment. (d) Negative reinforcement . Skinner studied ina . (a) Rats, cage. (b) Pigeons,Skinnerbox. (c) Mice, cage. (d) Rats,Skinnerbox. . Chase etal . found: (a) Brain areas associatedwith reinforcement. (b) Operant conditioning cannot explain learning. (c) Negative reinforcementdoesnot exist. (d) Reinforcement can explainphobias. Social learning theory /Bandura etal . . In the contextofSLT,amodel is: (a) Someonewhowearsotherpeople’s clothes. (b) Someonewho isobservedperforming abehaviour. (c) A small versionof the real thing. (d) Madeoutofplasticine. . Vicarious reinforcement: (a) Occurswithoutobservation. (b) Is adirect formof learning. (c) Makes imitationmore likely. (d) Is another term fornegative reinforcement. . InBandura’s study, imitationwasmost likely: (a) When theobserverwas female and themodelwasmale. (b) In the controlgroup. (c) When themodel andobserverwere the same sex. (d) When themodelwasnot aggressive. . SLT: (a) Is a complete explanationof aggressivebehaviour. (b) Cannot explainndings from studiesof identical twins. (c) Doesnot explain animalbehaviour. (d) Is supportedbyKendler etal .’s study. In… uenceofbiologyonbehaviour /Genes . Neurotransmittersareexamplesof: (a) Neuroanatomy. (b) Evolutionarypsychology. (c) Neurochemistry. (d) Genes. . Howgenesareexpressed inbehaviourand characteristics is: (a) Genotype. (b) Mainly environmental. (c) Entirelygenetic. (d) Phenotype. . The SRY geneplaysa role in: (a) Developmentof amale embryo. (b) Productionof femalehormones. (c) TheX chromosome. (d) Developmentofovaries. . Thegenotype/phenotypedistinctionemphasises: (a) Interactionbetweennature andnurture. (b) Nature. (c) Nurture. (d) Environment. Neuroanatomy /Harlow . Finemovementsare controlledby: (a) Themotor area. (b) The somatosensory area. (c) The visual area. (d) The thalamus. . Onaverage, isbigger in females: (a) Thebrain. (b) The righthemisphere. (c) The le¤hemisphere. (d) The thalamus. . PhineasGage’s intellectualabilitywas: (a) Greater a¤erhis accident. (b) Impairedby the accidentbutnot lost. (c) Nonexistent a¤erwards. (d) The same as itwasbefore. . Which is themostaccurate statementabout thebrains ofmenandwomen? (a) They function verydifferently. (b) There are some structuraldifferences. (c) There aremajor structuraldifferences. (d) Men’sbrainshave stronger connectionsbetween hemispheres. Neurochemistry /Deady etal . . Thegapbetweennerve cells isa: (a) Gene. (b) Neuron. (c) Neurotransmitter. (d) Synapse. . Themain female sexhormone is: (a) Testosterone. (b) Serotonin. (c) Oestrogen. (d) Adrenaline. . Deady etal .used the: (a) Basic sex-role inventory. (b) Bem sex-role inventory. (c) Brain sex-role inventory. (d) Banned sex-role inventory. . Which statement ismostaccurate? (a) Testosterone causes strongmaternalpersonality. (b) Testosterone causesweakmaternalpersonality. (c) Several factors inŠuencematernalpersonality. (d) Correlation is another term for causation. Evolutionarypsychology /Buss etal . . Theenvironmentofevolutionaryadaptation: (a) Accounts for10%ofour evolutionaryhistory. (b) Wasmore than10,000 years ago. (c) Happened justoutsideBolton. (d) Hasno inŠuenceonbehaviour. . Thepeacock’s tail isbestexplainedby: (a) Sexual selection. (b) Genome lag. (c) Survivalof thettest. (d) Natural selection. . InBuss etal .’s study,what%ofwomenweremore distressedby theemotional in†delity scenario? (a) 60%. (b) 40%. (c) 17%. (d) 83%. . Pulse rate is: (a) A subjectivemeasure. (b) Apsychologicalmeasure. (c) Not ameasureofdistress. (d) Anobjectivemeasure. MCQanswers Overviewof four approaches 1C,2C,3A,4D Reconstructivememory /Bartlett 1B,2D,3D,4A Cognitivepriming /Harris etal. 1C,2D,3A,4A Cognitivebiases / Lo¤us andPalmer 1A,2C,3C,4C Conformity /Asch 1B,2B,3A,4D Typesof conformity /Haney etal. 1D,2B,3A,4D Social categorisation / Chatard etal. 1A,2A,3C,4B Classical conditioning /Watson andRayner 1C,2B,3C,4C Operant conditioning /Skinner 1D,2B,3D,4A Social learning theory /Bandura etal. 1B,2C,3C,4B InŠuenceofbiologyonbehaviour /Genes 1C,2D,3A,4A Neuroanatomy /Harlow 1A,2D,3B,4B Neurochemistry /Deady etal. 1D,2C,3B,4C Evolutionarypsychology /Buss etal. 1B,2A,3D,4D 40 41 Unit1:Psychologicalapproachesandapplications 02_U01BTECPsychologyY1.indd 40-41 21/05/2019 13:34 Content areasA andB Assessmentguidance Unit 1 (Psychological approaches and applications) isexternally assessed byoneexamination.Youwillbe awarded amark for thewholepaper – Distinction (D),Merit (M),Pass (P),NearPass (N)orUnclassified (U). Theexam is 1hour30minutes.The totalnumberofmarks for thepaper is72. Thepaper isdivided into three sections (A,B andC),eachwith24marks. Each section containsmaterial from all content areasA,B andC. Theexamination How toanswerexam-stylequestions Typeofquestion Examplequestion Example structure foranswer Shortanswer questions Statewhat ismeantby a ‘gender stereotype’. (1) A gender stereotype is a xed view abouthowmen andwomenbehave, basedon cultural ideas about gender behaviour. Explain one assumptionof the biological approach. (2) One assumption is thatour behaviours and thoughts allhave a physicalbasis. For example, thebrain and central nervous systemdriveourbehaviour and aremouldedby genes and levels ofdifferentneurotransmitters. Explainhow the ndingsof Bartlett (1932) support the role of schema inmemory. (3) Bartlett found thatparticipants’ memorieswere shortenedwith each recall. Theywere rephrased in language and ideasmore familiar to them. The transformationsoccurredbecause participants’ schemas in„uenced what they could remember about the story.Wedon’t recalldetails,but instead remember fragments anduse our schemas to reconstructmemory. Context questions Merlinwas listening to the song BananaPancakes by Jack Johnson.Whenhewent into the kitchen,he immediately noticed thebananas in the fruit bowl. Explain one typeofpriming thathe is showing. (2) Merlin is showing repetitionpriming. This isbecause theword ‘banana’ in the songprimedhim cognitively so thathenoticed thebananas very quicklywhenhe saw them later. Tamara andAgathawere completingwordswithmissing letters. Tamara gaveAgatha the word S__P and said, ‘I’m going to get some food.’ ExplainwhyAgatha completed theword as SOUP. (3) Agathadid thisbecause she experienced semanticpriming. Because Tamaraused theword ‘food’, thisprimedAgatha to solve the puzzlewith aword that is related in meaning (semantic). Thismeant shewasmore likely to recall theword ‘soup’ rather than ‘soap’or ‘ship’, etc. Extended open-response questions See9-mark example at topof facingpage. There are further examplesonpages47 and79. Healthwarning Thematerialon assessment advice isnot from the examboard. It is our interpretation of the ‘rulesof the game’.Exams are a kindof ‘game’ because there are guidelines and rules, andpractice is very important to dowell.But it is a serious ‘game’. ! Command terms Mostquestionsbeginwith a command term. Eachof these termshas ameaning. These are explained in full onpage76. AO1 Demonstratepsychological knowledge,be able to recall key assumptions, concepts and research. • Commandwords: describe , give , givea reasonwhy , identify , name , state . • Marks: range from1 to4marks. AO2 Demonstrateunderstandingby explaining the linkbetweenpsychological assumptions, concepts and research tobehaviour in society. • Commandwords: describe , explain , interpret , justify . • Marks: range from1 to4marks. AO3 Apply and evaluatepsychological assumptions, concepts and research to explain contemporary issuesof relevance to society. • Commandwords: analyse , assess , compare , discuss , evaluate , explain (only assess , compare and evaluate require a conclusion). • Marks: range from1 to9marks. Timing Timing is always important in examsbecause youhave a xed amountof time. Youmust spend sufficient timeon each answer in relation to themarksbutnot toomuch (otherwise you don’t give full enough answers tootherquestions). As there are72marks and youhave90minutes for the Unit1 exam thatmeans youhave1¼minutespermark. We think you canwrite about35words in 1¼minutes. So fora9-markquestionyou shouldbeable towrite about3o0–330words. Exams are a giŸbecause they areover anddonewith inone go.OK , youdohave to spend timepreparing (seenext spread forpreparation advice)but at the endof theday it isone exam rather thanhours andhours andhours trying toperfect a report. Extendedopen-responsequestion (essay) Context Dev and Jo arediscussingmemory.Devbelieves that recall is likeplayingback a recording.But Jo argues that recall ismoreof a reconstruction. Jo alsobelieves the research supportsher argument. Question With reference toDev and Jo’sdiscusion, asess the view thatmemory is reconstructive. Consider the roleof schema in your answer. (9) Answer Bartlett (1932) suggestedourmemoriesare reconstructive.Heused this term to say thatwhathappens iswe store fragmentsof information inourmemoriesandwhenwe try to recall anevent,weactivelyconstruct the fragments intoamemory for thatevent.Thatmemory isnot the sameas theactualexperience.This isnotwhatDevbelieves,hebelievesmemory is just likea tape recording. Theconceptof schema is important inexplaininghowwe reconstructmemories.A schema isa mental structure,a ‘package’containingour storedknowledgeofanaspectof theworld.Schemas affect recallbecausewhenyou retrieve these fragmentsofmemoryyouchange themaccording to yourexpectations. Jo suggestswe reconstructourmemoriesusing schemas.Such schemasmighthave theeffect, forexample,ofconfabulating the information inyourmemory– inventingnewbitsof information to ll in thegapsbetween the fragments.This iswhatmakes thememorydifferent froma tape recording,becausenewbitshavebeenadded. It’snotanexact replica. Theevidence to support Jo’sviewcomes fromBartlett’sown research, suchas theWarof the Ghosts,which showedhowpeoplechange theirmemory to somethingmore in linewith their expectations.However,aproblemwith this research is that itwasn’twell-controlled.Forexample, the instructionswerenotall the same foreachparticipantwhichmightexplaindifferences in what they recalled. There isalsoevidence that supportsDevbecause sometimesmemorycanbeveryaccurate.For example, in situations thatarepersonally importantorwhich standout. In fact thereareexamples of this in theWarof theGhosts–participantsoften recalled thephrase ‘Somethingblackcame outofhismouth’because itwasquiteunusual. Inconclusion it is fair to say thatan informedviewofmemorywouldcombinebothviewsand aim tounderstandwhenweuse schemas to ll in thegapsandwhenwe tend tobemoreaccurate. 333words Writingagoodessay You are aiming towrite about320words for a9-mark ‘essay’. Youwillhelp the examiner, and yourself, if you construct an answerwhich fllows aplan. For320words you couldplan towrite ve paragraphsof about50–70words (ason the leŸ). Identifywhatwill go in eachpragraph: • Paragraph1 • Paragraph2 • Paragraph3 • Paragraph4 • Paragraph5 Plus a conclusion if the commandword is assess , compare or evaluate . A conclusion isnot a summary, i.e. you arenot justbrie„y repeating all your key points. You are seeking towriteoneor two sentences thatproduce a synthesisof what youwrote in the essay.What is the takehomemessage ? Othermark schemes Questions for less than6marksusuallyhavemark schemeswhere1mark is awarded for eachpoint.Broadly speaking these are the key criteria for theoveralloutcome: Criteria for apass Criteria for adistinction Answer ismostly accuratebutwith someomissions. Accurate and thoroughwith a fewminoromissions. Shows awarenessof competing arguments. Thorough awarenessof competing arguments supportedby relevant evidence acrossunit inwell- developed and logicaldiscussion. Howessaysaremarked The examinerhas a setof criteria to look for.Wehave created a gridof these criteriabelow. LevelMark Knowledge and understanding Gapsor omissions Points are relevant to the contextof thequestion Linksmade to context Discussion/analysis/ assessment/ evaluation Considersdifferent aspects andhow they interrelate 1 1–3 Isolated elements. Major. Few. Limited. Generic assertions. 2 4–6 Some accurate. Minor. Some. Not clear. Partially-developed. Some,butnot always in a sustainedway. 3 7–9 Mostly accurate anddetailed. None Most. Clear. Well-developed. A range, in a sustainedway. Note 1. Questions thatbegin Assess or Compare or Evaluate require a conclusion for level3. 2. Questions thatbegin Analyse require the topic tobebrokendown into constituentparts. 3. Questionsworth6marksuse the same leveldescriptorsbut themarks are: level1=1–2marks, level2=3–4marks and level3=5–6marks. How touse the levelsbasedmark scheme Youmustplace a tick inone box in each column that bestdescribes the answer being assessed. If you arenot sure, then place the tickon the line between twoboxes. When youhavedone this for all six columnsdecide which rowbestdescribes the answer. Thatdetermines the level. Todecideon themark considerwhether you are tempted to the level aboveor the levelbelow,or neither. The assessment is available in January andMay/June each year. You are allowed to resit any external examination and will get thehighermarkof any two attempts.However, it isunlikely youwillbene t from thisbecause itmerely increases yourworkburden. Note, for3marks wehavemade threepoints. 42 43 Unit1:Psychologicalapproachesandapplications 02_U01BTECPsychologyY1.indd 42-43 21/05/2019 13:34 Content areasA andB Practicequestions, answers and feedback Question4: Jess isholding ababy and says toher friend, ‘I’ve alwayswanted ababy – in fact I’d likefive. I think I’llbe a reallygood mum.’Tess replies, ‘Babiesdon’t appeal tome at all, andbeing amother ismy ideaof anightmare!’ Discussneurochemistrywith reference to this scenario. In your answer you should consider: (a) the roleof sexhormones, and (b) the key studybyDeady etal . (2006). (9) Chen’s answer Neurochemistry includesbothneurotransmittersandhormones– thesearebiologicalchemicals thatpass ‘messages’around thebody. In thecaseofneurotransmitters themessagesare sentvia neuronswhereas forhormones themessagesare sent in thebloodstream. Sexhormoneshaveaparticulareffectonour sexualdevelopmentandalsoon thebehaviourof femalesandmales.Themain female sexhormone isoestrogenand themainmale sexhormone is testosterone.Thesehormonesarepresent inmembersof theopposite sex too– sowomenhave smallamountsof testosteroneandmaleshave smallamountsofoestrogen. Oestrogencontrols thedevelopmentof the female reproductiveorgansandalsocontrols the developmentof the female secondary sexualcharacteristicsatpuberty, suchas thegrowth ofbreasts,and itcontrols themenstrualcycle. Itmayalsocontribute tomakingwomenmore emotional,e.g.experiencingpremenstrual tension. Testosteronecontrols thedevelopmentof themale reproductiveorgansandalsocontrols the developmentofmale secondary sexualcharacteristicsatpuberty, suchasdeepeningof thevoice. Testosteronehasalsobeen linked to theemotionofaggression.Research shows thatmenare generallymoreaggressive thanwomen. The studybyDeady etal . (2006) lookedat testosterone levels inwomen to seehow itaffected maternalpersonality traits.They testedparticipants’ senseofmasculinityusing theBSRIandalso askedquestions, forexample,about reproductiveambition.Testosterone levelsweremeasuredby taking samplesof saliva. The researchers found thatahigher levelof testosterone in femaleswasassociatedwithagreater senseofmasculinity.Higher levelsof testosteronewerealsoassociatedwith lower reproductive ambitionand lowermaternalpersonality scoresbut theywerenotassociatedwithcareer orientation. What this suggests is that testosteronedoeshaveaneffectonbehaviours inwomenbecause therewasacorrelationwith someof thebehaviours–higher testosteronewasassociatedwith low levelsof femalebehaviours.What thismeans is there isevidence thatbiological factorsaffect the waypeople think. 330words Teacher comments Chenhas shown remarkable recall for the contents of thisbook andhasdemonstrated adetailed understandingofneurochemistry, the roleof sexhormones and the key studybyDeady etal . Furthermore the informationon sexhormones is not just adescriptionofwhat they arebut includes their ‘role’. The answer is agood length andhasbeendivided intomanyparagraphswhichmakes itmuch easier for an examiner to read and identify thepoints beingmade.Eachpoint isoneparagraph. Thedescription showsdetailed and accurate knowledge andunderstanding,with fewomissions. However, there areno links to the contextnor is there anydiscussion. If you look at themark schemeonpage43, Chen’s answerts the criteria for level3 in therst two columns,but, for the context and evaluation (columns3–6) the answerts the criteria at level1. Thismeanshewouldprobablyget4outof9marks (themark thatbestts). Youmaybewonderinghow youwouldnd time in an exam towrite all thedescriptionplus the missing evaluation content (as this answer is already adequate in length). The answer is youmust learn to represent thematerial in thisbook succinctly. ConsiderSaturn’s approachbelow as adifferent strategy. Saturn’s answer Oneexampleofneurochemistry issexhormones, theseare thechemicals thatcontrolbehaviour related togender.Oestrogen is themain femalehormoneandcontrols reproductivebehaviour,so it would relate towhy Jessexpressesadesire tohaveababy.She is thinking in thewaya femalewould. Testosterone is themainmalehormone,and this is related tomale reproductivebehaviour. Testosterone isalsopresent inwomen,as the studybyDeady etal . showsusand this studyalso shows thatwomenwithhigher levelsmayhave lowermaternal instincts.Thismightexplainwhat Tess saysaboutnotbeing interested inbeingamother–possiblybecauseofhigher thanusual testosterone forawoman. On theotherhand, Jess’behaviourcouldbeexplainedasbeingdeterminedbyher sexhormones whichpredisposeher to femalematernal instincts.However,we shouldalso remember thatan issuewithDeady etal .’s study is that there is justacorrelationbetweenhormonesandbehaviour (womenwithhigher testosterone showed lower female interests)butwecan’t say thatonecaused theother. One strengthof the roleof sexhormones is that it isbasedona lotof research.Forexample, VanGoozen etal . found that female sexhormones thatweregiven to transgenderwomen led todecreases inaggression.This isclearevidenceofadirectcause.Wemightapply this toTess because, if shewanted tochange, shemighthave somehormone treatment tomakehermore interested inhavingbabies. Oneweaknessof this research is that ithasn’tbeensupportedbyotherstudiesof those transitioning peoplewhodon’tshowbehaviouralchanges in relation tochanges inhormones.Thissuggests that theremaybeother things in uencingpeople’sbehavioursuchas learningexperiences. Itcould be thatTess’dislikeofbabies isnotbecauseofherhormonesbutbecausehermotherhadsimilar attitudesandshe ismodellingherbehaviouronhermother’sbehaviour. 331words Saturnmaybeoverdoing the references to the contextbut it isbetter to err in thatdirection and aim tohaveonementionof the contextperpoint (paragraph) than endupwith too little. There isobviously lessdetaileddescriptionhere than in Chen’s answerbut thiswasnecessary to leave sufficient time for theother key components– evaluation and reference to the context. The answer herewouldprobablybedescribed as ‘some accurate’ and ‘minoromissions’butwe arenot temptedby level1 for knowledge andunderstanding.So agood level2 fordescription. There is a reasonablediscussion (perhapsbetween level2 and3) and certainly level3 for links to the context and their relevance.Notice that it isnot just amatterof inserting thenames Jess and Tess in the answerbut actually engagingwith their comments. Thismeans thebestt for themark scheme (see page43)wouldbe topof level2ormaybe even bottom level3,whichgivesSaturn7outof9marks. On this spreadwe lookat some typical studentanswers toexam-stylequestions.The commentsprovided (ingreen) fromanexperienced teacher showwhat isgoodandbad ineachanswer. Learninghow toprovideeffectiveexamanswers isaSKILL.Practise it. Question1: Statewhat ismeantby the term ‘reconstructivememory’. (1) Chen’s answer It isakindofmemory thathasbeen reconstructive. Teacher comments Neverdene somethingusing the samewords. Thiswouldgain0marks. Bella’s answer Piecesof stored informationare reassembledduring recall.The process isguidedbyour schemas so thatweproducea ‘memory’ thatmakes sense (even if it is inaccurate). Bellahas learned thedenition in thebook–but sheonlyneeds1 mark’sworth.Don’twaste valuable exam time– ensure your answerts themarks available.1mark. Saturn’s answer Recalling somethingbutcombining fragments thathavebeen stored. Saturnhas it just right for1mark. Question2: Explainwhat thefindingsofWatson andRayner’s (1920) study tellus about classical conditioning. (3) Chen’s answer WatsonandRaynerdida studywhere theyconditionedavery youngboycalledLittleAlbert tohavea fear response to furry whiteobjects.Theydid thisby strikingahammeronametalbar whichwasanunconditioned stimulus.The furrywhiteobject (e.g. a rat)wasaneutral stimulus– they tested thisat thebeginning to see that therewasno response.Thisprocess illustratesclassical conditioning. Chenhasdemonstrated reasonable knowledgeof the key studybut not shaped itwell to answer thequestion. Just saying ‘Thisprocess illustrates classical conditioning’doesn’t count as answering the question– Chenneeded to add ‘because…’ andll something in like ‘it showshow anew link canbe formedbetween theunconditioned andneutral stimulus.’ The answerdoesuse some specialist terminology appropriatelybut isnot sufficiently shaped to thequestion togetmore than1mark. Bella’s answer The study shows thatemotionscanbeclassicallyconditioned becauseLittleAlbert learned toassociateaneutral stimuluswith fear.The ratat rstproducedno responsebutwasassociated witha loudnoiseandafteranumberofpairingsproduceda fear response.Furthermore the study showed that the learned responsegeneralised tootherwhite furryobjects. Bella’s answer startswith a clear response to thequestion–whatdo the ndings showus?She then uses her knowledge to focuson thequestion and avoids justdescribingwhathappened. The answer is an appropriate length– just three sentences for the3marks.Exam answers arenot marked like thatbut it is auseful ruleof thumb toguide you in the exam andprevent youwriting too littleor toomuch.3marks. Saturn’s answer The study illustrates theprocessofclassicalconditioningby showing thatyoucanpairanunconditioned stimulus (the loud noise)withaneutral stimulus (the rat) so that the ratbecomesa conditioned stimulusproducing fear (nowaconditioned response). In contrastSaturn’s answer isprobably just abit too short. Important details and specialist terminology is includedbut there isn’t thedepth for the full3marks.Shehasn’t really tolduswhatwe can learn about classical conditioning from this study, e.g. that the learned response cangeneraliseor that it takes a fewpairingsbefore the response canbe learned.2marks. Question3: Describe one findingof the key studybyChatard etal . (2007). (2) Chen’s answer Boysandgirlsprimedwitha stereotypeoverestimatedarts results, girlsunderestimatedmaths results. Chen showshow a very short answer can be effective. The answer is accurate and mentions threedifferentndings, so the full2marks. Bella’s answer Chatard etal .dida studyabout socialcategorisation.They found thatboyswhohadbeengiven the stereotypeoverestimated results,girlsunderestimated them. Bella know abit about the studybut therst sentence isnot creditworthy and the second sentence fails to specifywhich results– artsormaths. So0marks. Saturn’s answer Boysandgirlswhoweregiven thegender-stereotype reminder ofgirlsdoingbetteratartsandboysdoingbetteratMaths overestimated theirartsperformance.Girlswhoweregiven thegender-stereotype reminderunderestimated theirmaths performance (whileboysoverestimated theirs). Saturnhasgiven the fulldetails,probably more thanwouldbeneeded for2marks. Note that some questionson ndings might startwith the command term ‘Explain’and beworth3marks. In such cases youareexpected todomore than just identify the ndings. Instead thequestionwillalso requireyou toapply the ndings toexplain something, forexample toexplain how the ndings from Chatard etal. ’s study couldexplain female career choice. 46 47 Unit1:Psychologicalapproachesandapplications 02_U01BTECPsychologyY1.indd 46-47 21/05/2019 13:34 Assessment guidance Learning aimB You are required toproduce amaximumof three reports forUnit2whichmeans combining at least twoof the learning aims. It is suggested the report for learning aim B is separatewhichmakes sense as this is theproposal for yourpilot study. The report canbewrittenorpresented as aposter, PowerPointor in another form. This report canonlybe completed after youhave studied the contentof learning aimsA andB as it is a synoptic assessment (see facingpage) – seepage 101 for anexplanation. LearningaimBassessment Self-review checklist This researchproposal is especially importantbecause it sets the scene for the remaining assessment forUnit2. If youdon’t get this right then your report for learning aims C and Dwillbe affected. That said, if thedesignof yourpilot study isawed, youwillhave a lot to analyse in the nal report! Firstdra of theproposal for yourpilot study Remember this is adra. So you canwrite anything, just get thoughtson thepage (see ‘Blankpage syndrome’on the right). Butdonot copyanything,evenat this stage,becauseyouwill later forget itwas copied. Date to complete rstdra : • In therstwhite column enter the completiondates for each sectionof your report. • As youwrite each section tickwhen you haveplanned, explained, assessed and evaluated. Date completed Plan (B.P‰) Explain (B.P‹) Assess (B.MŽ) Evaluate (B.DŽ) B1Researchmethods Literature review Research aims/hypothesis Researchmethod tobeused Otherdesigndecisions B2Organisationalmanagement SMART targets Timemanagement References compiled Seconddra Thenext step is to revise yourrstdocument.Below is a checklistof things to consider. Date to complete seconddra : Date completed Ihave checked that Ihave covered eachof the sixmarking factors (grey column) in the tableon the facingpage. Ihave gone through anddeleted any irrelevantmaterial. Ihave checked that everypointhas evidence toback itup. Ihave identied long sentences and rephrased them. Ihave checked that eachparagraphdealswithone idea. Ihave corrected any spellingmistakes. Ihave checked that eachparagraphmakes reference to the scenario/ context. Finaldra Read through your completed seconddra topolish the report. Date to complete naldra : Assessment information Yournal reportwillbe awarded aDistinction (D),Merit (M),Pass (P),NearPass (N)orUnclassied (U). Marking factors The specication alsoprovides information that an assessorwill take into considerationwhenmarking your assignment. Marking factors Pass Merit Distinction Different research methodswillbe… … given abasic outline. … analysed. … critically evaluated. Advantages and disadvantageswill be given… … for some examples. … clear consideration of a rangeofmethods, maybe examples in different contexts. …detailed considerationof a rangeofmethods in different contexts. Examples… …not always appropriate. …well-structured and show good understanding. … fully focused, structured and show soundunderstanding. The researchproposalwill contain information about the participants,procedures, researchquestionsorhypothesis and the methodology tobeused, aswell as ethical considerations and a timeline for completing thepilotproject. …detailed and justied. Researchproposal linked to literature, methodologies and references… … some attempt, using academic conventions. … generally accurate. …highly focused. Discussions… …weak in structure andmay contain inconsistencies. … someuseof critical evaluation. …demonstrate originalityof thought and critical thinking. The specicationprovides criteria for each level as shownbelow. Pass Merit Distinction B.P‰PLAN for apilot studyusing appropriate methods. B.P‹ EXPLAINproposal forownpilot study. B.MŽASSESSdifferent research methodswhenplanning research proposals inpsychological inquiry. B.DŽ EVALUATEdifferent researchmethods whenplanning researchproposals in psychological inquiry. Referencing If you cite any research studyor source (such as awebsite) youneed to include this in a list of references at the endof your report. This list shouldbe in alphabeticalorder. The conventions for referencing aredescribedon page128. Command termsused in thisunit The assessment criteria for learning aimsA,B, C and D are: Analyse =Amethodical anddetailed examination, breakingdown a topicor information. Assess = Consider factors that apply to a specic situation, come to a conclusion. Evaluate = Consider strengths/weaknesses, come to a conclusion. Explain = State and then justifyor give an example. Perform = Carryoutwhatneeds tobedone to complete a given activity. Plan = Create awayofdoing a task to achieve specic objectives showingprogress from start tonish. Blankpage syndrome* We all experience it–when you try to startwriting something you endup staring at thatblankpage and can’t thinkwhere tobegin. Itdoesn’tmatterwhere youbegin! That’swhat arst dra is about. Justwrite anything–butdowrite in your ownwordsnot chunks copied from the internetor this textbook,otherwise youwill forget and theywill endup in yournal version (see ‘Plagiarism’onpage101). *It’smore likelyof course tobe ablank screen syndrome. Recommendedassessmentapproach Assignmentbriefs Theboard supplies suggested assessmentbriefswhich you canuse– see Unit2Authorisedassignmentbrief for LearningaimAandB Conductingpsychological research . Your centre can alsodevise theirown assessmentbriefwhich shouldhave a vocational scenario/context and a seriesof tasks to complete. You are required towrite a reportdiscussingaproposal for apilot study that takes accountof research questions,methods, participants,procedures, time andorganisational management. The DeliveryGuide for Unit2 states that your report should: • Relate to the vocational elementof this course. • Be straightforward. • Be ethically sound. Vocational scenario The task (fromUnit2BAssignmentBrief) The DeliveryGuide forUnit2 suggests that yourpilot study should take the formof an experiment,observation, questionnaireor an interview. Caution shouldbe takennot touse topics suchasmentalhealthoranyprocedures that couldpossibly causeharmor distress. Produce adetailed report that evaluates and assesses themethods utilisedwhenplanning researchproposals inpsychological enquiry. Yourproposal for apilot studymust include the following: • Aproposal plan for apilot studyusing the appropriatemethods. • An explanation of theproposal for yourparticular study. • An assessment and evaluation of thedifferent researchmethods whenplanning researchproposals inpsychological inquiry. 116 117 Unit2:Conductingpsychological research 03_U02BTECPsychologyY1.indd 116-117 21/05/2019 16:16 C ntent areasA andB Revisionguidance Youwill sit anexamon the topics in thisunit.Examsmean revising –but the secret is that revising shouldhappennow.Start revising as yougo along. Wehavedivided thisbook into spreads.Each spread representsone chunk of the specification as indicated at thebottom rightof the spread. Preparing for theexam Revision card On the facingpage is a listof all the topics youneed to cover for content areasA andB. Below is an example f a revision card foroneof these topics. This revision card is especially important forwriting 9-mark aswers (essays). Description Topic Reconstructivememory Keypoint (acue) Description Reconstructive Bartlett:activeprocess, store fragments, recallbuilds itup into meaningfulwhole. Notaccurate Bitsmissinganddistorted, e.g. Warof theGhosts. Schemas Mental structures,packageof knowledgeofworld (objects, events). Innate Bornwith somebasic schemasbut acquiremore throughexperience. Experience Whenapersonhasanew experience, relevant schema activated,helpsprocess info,make guesses. Shortening Leftout ifdoesn’t t schema (unexpected). Rationalisation Distorted to t schemabecause strangeorunfamiliar,more sense. Confabulation Invented to llgaps,guidedby schemas. Evaluation Lacks control No standardised instructions so differencesmaybedue to this. Accurate Personally importantordistinctive memories lessaffectedby schemas. Eyewitness testimony Exampleof reconstruction leading to inacurate recall,soconvictionsnot bas on thisalone. Thebeautyof this is: • You reducewhat youhave tomemorise (justmemorise the cues). The rest is just engraved in yourmemory throughpractice. • If youdo this for every spread as you study it, then you willhave all your revisionmaterials ready at the endof the yearwhen youhave toprepare for the exam. Foreach topic you shouldproduce a revision card. For some spreads youmightdecide to havemore thanone revision card. A cue There are snooker cues and there areother cues– a cue is a thing that serves as a reminderof something else.An actor knows she must come inon cue– a reminderor signal. Psychologistshave investigated the valueof cues in remembering. They act as a reminderofwhat else you know. In the revision cardon the right the‚rst column is labelled ‘Key point’which can serve as a cue to remember the contents in the second column, labelled ‘Description’. Step1See ifyour cueswork If you justmemorise the cues you shouldbe able toproduce the information in the second column: • Once youhaveproduced the revision card, cover the second column and for each cuewritedownwhat you can recall. • Checkhowmuch you remembered.Maybe youneed to add a wordordate to your cue tohelp you. • Try again and see if you remembermore this time. Psychological research shows thatpeopleo‰enhavemuchmore in theirheads than they can recall– they justneed the right cue. Step2Testyour recall Psychological researchhas also shown that recall improves dramatically if you TEST yourmemory. Thatdoesn’tmean rereading yournotesbut CLOSING YOURBOOK andwritingdown everything you remember, then checking to seewht you le‰out and testing it again. Speci cation termsare important Wehavehighlighted ‘speci‚cation terms’on each spread in ade‚nitionboxbut there are others too. These are examplesof specialist psychological knowledge. Make sure you include theseon your revision cards. The specialist terms turn an impressionist answer… … into adetailedone. Thispicture isdescribed as aman ‘revising’ an excavation tyre. Revise= reconsideror alter. Revise= rereadworkpreviouslydone. Whichmeans youneed to read your notes‚rst and then reread them. Practice No athletewoulddreamof running a race withoutdoingmanypractice runsof the rightdistance andwithin a set time.Always write exam answers in the allotted time– allow yourself about12–15minutes for a 9-mark essay (it isprecisely11¼minutes but itpays to spend abitof extra timeon the essays). You shouldplan for the essay beforehand andmaybe evenwrite a few notesbut thenwrite the answerwith the clock ticking.A‰erwards, check your revision card and textbook andnote any really important things you forgot tomention. Revision checklist for contentareasAandB Below are the key topics for content areasA andB. For each topic you should: 1. Construct a revision card and/oruseour summaries (pages38–39 and72–73). 2. Test your recallusing your cues. Check a‰erwards to seewhat youhave forgotten. 3. Test your recall againusing the cues. 4. Now test yourmemoryof the cuewords. 1. Construct revision card 2. First testof recall 3. Second testof recall 4. Test memory using cues Cognitive Cognitive assumptions Reconstructivememory Bartlett (1932) Cognitivepriming Harris etal . (2009) Cognitivebiases Lo‰us andPalmer (1974) Social Social assumptions Conformity Asch (1951) Typesof conformity Haney etal . (1973) Social categorisation Chatard etal . (2007) Learning Learning assumptions Classical conditioning Watson andRayner (1920) Operant conditioning Skinner (1932) Social learning theory (SLT) Bandura etal . (1961) Biological Biological assumptions In¦uenceofbiologyonbehaviour Genes Neuroanatomy Harlow (1868) Neurochemistry Deady etal . (2006) Evolutionarypsychology Buss etal . (1992) Believe in thepower ofpsychology 44 45 Unit1:Psychologicalapproachesandapplications 02_U01BTECPsychologyY1.indd 44-45 21/05/2019 13:34 p k Contents LearningaimA:Understand researchmethodsand their importance in psychological inquiry A1Principlesof research Introducing research and the scienti cprocess 82 Informing and improvingpractice 84 Typesof researchprocess 86 A2Key termsused in research Starting research 88 Hypotheses and a literature review 90 Sampling techniques 92 Reliability and validity 94 A3Researchprocess Ethical considerations 96 Conducting research 98 Assessmentguidance 100 LearningaimB:Plan research to investigatepsychologicalquestions B1Researchmethods Reviewof researchmethods 102 Experiments 104 Questionnaires and interviews 106 Observation 108 Content and thematic analysis 110 A fewother things 112 B2Developing research proposals Planning andmanaging yourpilot study 114 Assessmentguidance 116 Learningaim C: Carryoutapilot study toexplore current issues in psychology C1Data collection Data collection 118 C2Dataanalysis Quantitativedata analysis techniques 120 Qualitativedata analysis techniques 122 C3Presentingndings toan audience Writingup the study andpresenting it 124 LearningaimD:Review implicationsof research intopsychological inquiry D1Reviewing researchprocess andndings Review researchprocess and implicationsof research 126 D2 Implicationsof research intopsychological inquiry Assessmentguidance 128 Anarmchairpsychologist A reportdiscussing the importanceof research in informing and improving practice andprovision,detailing theway inwhich research isorganised andgiving an evaluationofdifferent research methods and theirusefulness in answering speci cquestions. Apilot study, including: • A reportonprocedures followed for conducting research and collecting and analysingdata. • A report thatdiscusses the ndings and successof the pilot study, the implications of researchonpractice and provision, and the impact, through self-reŒection and feedback fromothers,on personal andprofessional development. A reportdiscussing aproposal for aplt study that takes accountof researchquestions, methods,participants, procedures, time and organisationalmanagement. Pearson recommended assessment approach Oh, I can explain that! Youngpeopledidn’tbehave like that inmydaybecause theirparentswere much stricter. If you just gave themharsherpunishment thatwould stop theirbadbehaviour. There shouldbe longerprison sentences forpeoplewho carry knives. In factweareallarmchair psychologists.We like to try to explainwhy people (andanimals) behaveas theydo. Just listen topeople’s conversationsand you’ll hear someone trying to explainbehaviour. ● Try to thinkof some of thequestions peopleaskand the explanations they produce. Unit 2 Conducting psychological research 80 81 03_U02BTECPsychologyY1.indd 80-81 21/05/2019 16:14 Main spreads The speci cation content is covered on spreads such as the one on the facing page. They all contain a similar pattern of boxes. Etal. etal. ’ If you use social media you may have been exposed to cognitive priming without realising it. Can you explain how? An issue to consider B1 Cognitive approach Key concept: ● Cognitivepriming, including the roleof cognitive scriptsanddi erent typesofpriming (repetition, semanticandassociative). Key study: ● Harris, Bargh and Brownell (2009) Priming e ects of television food advertising on eating behaviour. Specification content 1. Statewhat ismeantby the term ‘cognitivepriming’. (1) 2. Give an exampleofhow cognitive scriptsmight affectbehaviour in everyday life. (2) 3. Describe one ndingof the key studybyHarris etal . (2009). (2) 4. Explain one strengthor one weaknessof the key studybyHarris etal . (2009). (3) 5. Apsychologistaskedagroupof students to reada briefpassageand then completeaword task.The passagedescribed the layoutofadoctor’s surgery.The taskwas to completewordswithmissing letters (e.g. N__S_).Anothergroupof studentsalso completed theword taskbutdidnot read thepassagerst. (a) Describe thending youwould expect the psychologist to get. (2) (b) Use the conceptof cognitivepriming to explain thisnding. (3) 6. Somepsychologistsbelieve that cognitivepriming affectsour everydaybehaviourwithoutus realising. Others argue thatprimingonly really exists in laboratory-based articial studies. Discuss the roleof cognitivepriming in inŽuencing behaviour. In your answer you should consider different typesofpriming and one exampleof real-lifebehaviour. (9) Exam-style questions Key concept 2 and key study Content area B1: Cognitive approach Evaluation Evidence supports cognitive scripts One strength is that cognitive scripts canhelpusunderstand the effectsof video gamingon aggressivebehaviour. In a studyby IngridMöller andBarbaraKrahé (2009), students read a scenario inwhich someone is accidentallypushed so they spill theirdrink. Studentswho frequentlyplayed violent video gamesweremuchmore likely thanother students to interpret thepush asdeliberate. Theywere alsomore likely to choosephysical aggression as a suitable response. This shows thatpeoplewhoplay violent videogamesnd it relativelyeasy to recall aggressive cognitive scripts stored inmemory, supporting the ideaof associativepriming . Lack of replication Oneweaknessof cognitivepriming is that the research it isbasedon is veryhard to replicate. Replication is an important featureof science. If a study is repeatedusing exactly the sameprocedure andproduces the samending, thenwe know that theoutcome isnot aŽuke and it ismore likely to represent something real.Butwhen researchers replicatepriming studies, theyo™en getdifferentndings. This suggests that the researchers themselvesmightbe inŽuencing theoutcomes. This implies that the conceptofpriming isnot scientic andwe cannotbe condent that the theories are correct. Evaluation Application to the problem of obesity The key study canhelpus tounderstand andprevent cognitive causesofobesity. Harris etal . showed that advertising can affecthowmany snacks children and adults eatbecauseof cognitivepriming.Onceweunderstand the effectsofprimingwemay be able toprevent this inŽuence (ordirect the inŽuence towardshealthy eating). Thismeans that education and legislation (althoughpoliticallydifficult) couldhelp topreventobesity, for example, especially in children. Arti cial conditions Oneweaknessof the key study is that itwas conducted in ‘articial’ conditions. For example, every childwatched the cartoon and advertson theirown in a classroom at their school (or anunoccupied room at a summer camp). Thismeant the conditionsdiffered from real-life viewingof adverts,whichusually takesplace in the home environment ando™enwithotherpeople. Therefore, the key studymaynotprovidemeaningful evidence for the effectsof cognitivepriming and cognitive scriptson real-lifebehaviour. Specification terms Associativepriming Weprocess a stimulusmorequickly (or recall itmore easily)becausewe earlier encountered a stimulus that iso™enpairedwith it. Cognitivepriming Wenotice a stimulus (word, image, object, etc.)morequicklywhenwe seeorhear a related stimulusrst (the ‘prime’). Cognitive scripts Knowledgeofbehaviours, roles, outcomes, etc. stored inmemory telluswhat to expect in a social situation andhow tobehave. Repetitionpriming Weprocess a stimulusmorequickly (or recall itmore easily)becausewe encountered it earlier. Semanticpriming Weprocess a stimulusmorequickly (or recall itmore easily)becausewe earlier encountered a stimulus related to it inmeaning (semantics=meaning). Key concept: Cognitive priming What is cognitive priming? When you seeorhearone stimulus (the ‘prime’), thisaffects your response toa later stimulus (youusuallyprocess the later stimulus faster). Theprime triggers anetworkof related concepts inmemory, so thatwhen the second stimulusoccurs, activation isquicker. Priming mayhappenbelow your levelof awareness so youdonot know your response is inŽuenced. Role of cognitive scripts Youhave learnedhowpeoplenormallybehave inmany social situations, such asbeing in a restaurant. The term cognitive script isused todescribewhat youhave learned. It is like learning to act a scene in aplay– the text for aplay is called a script and tells youwhat to do and say. Cognitive scripts are learned through experience (including from TV andbooks).When in a social situation,we recall frommemory (withoutbeing aware) the relevant script containing the featuresof the situation,whatwe can expect andhowwe shouldbehave. Types of cognitive priming Repetitionpriming When you encounter theprime (e.g. theword avocado ) youprocess it morequicklywhen you seeorhear it again later than youotherwisewouldhavedone. Semanticpriming Two stimulimean the same thingorhave similar features. For example, if you seeorhear theword computer , it is easier to recogniseor recall theword laptop later – youprocess laptop fasterbecause it is related inmeaning (semantically) to theprime. Associativepriming Theprime and the later stimulus are relatedbutnot semantically. For example, sh and chips are soo™enpaired that they are closely associated inmemory. If you are exposed toone you aremore likely to later recogniseor recall theother. Imagine this Your teacher asks you to carry out a very simple task. All you have to do is unscramble some mixed-up sentences. You get them all right. You leave the classroom thinking, ‘ That was too easy. What was it all about? ’ You don ’ t know it, but your teacher isn ’ t interested in how you did on the task at all. Instead, she ’ s timing you to see how long it takes you to leave the room. She ’ s done this with all the students in your class. It turns out you walked a lot slower to leave the room than some of your classmates did. Why? There could be many reasons, but here ’ s an interesting fact. All of the students did the same task, but there were two versions. In one version, some of the words in the sentences related to being old (bingo, retired, wrinkled, etc.). In the other version the words were neutral (thirsty, clean, private, etc.). Guess what? You got the ‘ old ’ version. Like you, all your classmates who got the old version were also slower to leave the room. Sounds weird? Hard to believe? John Bargh and his colleagues (1996) did this experiment and got this exact finding. Sabiha and Imy S abiha’s friendsallwatch thepopular series Gameof Thrones ,so shedecided to readabout itandwatch anepisode.By theendof theday,shehad seenor heard theword ‘throne’ in lotsofdifferentplaces – inoverheardconversations,onTwitterand Facebook,even inhercollege textbooks. 1. What typeofcognitivepriming is this? 2. Describeanother typeofpriming thatSabiha mighthaveexperienced. Imywasgoing to thecinemawithherparents to see the latestblockbuster. ‘I’mgoing tohave some popcornandan icecream,’ she saidas they left thehouse. 3. Howdo cognitive scriptsexplain Imy’s comment? ACTIVE GET Cognitivepriming couldhelpus tounderstandhow viewing screen-based adverts, vlogs andprogrammes affectourbehaviour.Doeswatching violentprogrammes primeus tobemore aggressive?Does a ‘diet’of food advertsprimeus to eatmore? Key study: Harris et al . (2009) Priming eects of television food advertising on eating behaviour Aims The researcherswanted to see ifwatching food advertson TVwould cause adults and children to automatically eat available snacks. Procedure Schoolchildrenwatched a cartoon– some saw a versionwith ads for food,others saw it withnon-food ads.Allwere given a snackwhilewatching the cartoon and the researchers measured the amount eaten. Adult studentswatched a TVprogramme– some saw a versionwith food adspromoting snacking as fun, some saw itwith food adspromotinghealth, the rest saw itwithno food ads.A™erwards, the students tasted and ratedve snacks ranging fromhealthy (carrots) to unhealthy (cookies). The researchersmeasured the amountof each snack eaten. Findings Childrenwho saw the food adverts ate45%moreof the snack than theother children. This differencewasnot related to anyother factor. Adult studentswho saw the fun snack adverts atemore (of all foods) than theother students (especiallymen andpeoplewhowere ‘dieting’).Hungerbefore eatingwas unrelated to amount eaten in the fun snack group. Conclusions Thendingsprovided ‘converging evidenceof an automatic,direct causal linkbetween food advertising and greater snack consumption’.Advertising ispowerfulbecause ithasmultiple priming effects, including short-term (enjoyment) and long-term (healthy eating). 14 15 Unit1:Psychologicalapproachesandapplications 02_U01BTECPsychologyY1.indd 14-15 21/05/2019 13:32 Special note Each evaluation point is divided into three PET paragraphs because this is a great way to ensure you explain your point well: 1. POINT State the point simply. 2. ELABORATION The point is now Explained, using Evidence and/or Examples. 3. THIS shows that … Finish with a conclusion o en beginning ‘This suggests’ or ‘This shows’ or ‘Therefore …’. That’s your PET evaluation. What are assessment objectives? At the end of your studies you hope to have gained a quali cation – this means someone has to assess your work. To assist this process there are three assessment objectives (AOs): AO1, AO2 and AO3. The course is designed so you can include all these AOs in what you learn. Each involves slightly different skills: • AO1 involves reporting the knowledge coherently and including key terminology (details). • AO2 involves PET skills (see top right). • AO3 requires you to use what you have learned to explain a real-world situation. Application Assessment objective 2 (AO2) is concerned with being able to apply your psychological knowledge and evaluation. On each spread there is at least one ‘ Get active ’ which gives you a chance to practise this AO2 skill of application. In addition many of the topics you study are applied and therefore involve AO2. Description Assessment objective 1 (AO1) is concerned with your ability to report detailed descriptions of psychological knowledge and demonstrate your understanding of this knowledge. We have generally presented the AO1 material just on the le -hand side of each spread, though sometimes it is on both sides. Evaluation Assessment objective 3 (AO3) is concerned with your ability to evaluate ( assess , analyse ) the concepts and studies you have learned about. On most spreads in this book we have presented some AO3 material on the right-hand side. Some topics don’t require evaluation so there isn’t any on the spread. Exam-style questions Questions similar to those in the exam provide some exam practice. In Unit 2 these boxes are called Assessment practice , and aim to help you practise skills for writing your internally-assessed reports. Speci cation terms We have de ned the terms in the speci cation box for this spread. Other terms are de ned in the index/ glossary starting on page 130. Speci cation content Tells you what you are required to study on this topic. An issue to consider An opportunity to re ect on the issues discussed on the spread. A beginning Each spread begins with something we hope will grab your interest – it represents the nub of the topic to be studied on the spread. 4 5