Pearson BTEC National Applied Psychology Book 1

Revision summary Content areas A and B Cognitive approach Key concept 1: Reconstructive memory Evaluation What is it? Memories reconstructed from fragments into meaningful whole. Role of schema in memory Mental package of knowledge. • Shortening – bits cut to t schemas. • Rationalisation – details distorted to t schemas. • Confabulation – details made up to ll gaps in memory. Application to EWT Eyewitnesses not accurate, due to schemas. Some memories are accurate Personally important or distinctive details are remembered. Key study: Bartlett (1932) Evaluation Aims Recall of unfamiliar story affected by schemas? Procedure British participants read War of the Ghosts story and then told to another person and so on (serial reproduction). Findings Recall transformed story – it was shortened, le out supernatural bits, phrases changed to be familiar. Conclusions Schemas in uence recall so story more meaningful, memory is reconstructive. Realistic theory and research Everyday task, not arti cial materials, conclusions relevant to real life. Unscienti c research Procedures not standardised or consistent, different experiences, conclusions may be wrong. Key concept 2: Cognitive priming Evaluation What is it? Experience of one stimulus (prime) affects response to later stimulus. Role of cognitive scripts Expectations of social situation (e.g. restaurant script). Types of cognitive priming • Repetition – same stimulus again. • Semantic – later stimulus related in meaning to prime. • Associative – later stimulus associated with prime but not in meaning. Evidence supports cognitive scripts Playing violent video games, easier recall of aggressive scripts (Möller and Krahé 2009). Lack of replication Repeating priming studies produces different ndings. Therefore, ndings are ukes, concept may not be scienti c. Key study: Harris et al . (2009) Evaluation Aims Does watching TV food adverts cause snacking? Procedure (1) Children – cartoon + food or no-food ads. (2) Adults – TV programme + food (fun-snacking or health- promoting) or no-food ads. (3) Measured snacks eaten. Findings (1) Children who saw food ads ate 45% more snacks than no-food ad group. (2) Adults who saw ‘fun’ ads ate more than others, unrelated to prior hunger. Conclusions TV ads prime snack consumption, short-term and long-term. Application to the problem of obesity Prevent priming in uence of TV snack adverts, promote healthy eating and prevent obesity. Arti cial conditions Watching adverts alone in classroom not real-life environment, therefore not meaningful ndings. Key concept 3: Cognitive biases Evaluation What are they? Errors in information processing, undermine rational decision-making but speed it up. Fundamental attribution error (FAE) Explaining other people’s behaviour as a result of their personality not situation. Con rmation bias Notice, store, recall information that con rms existing beliefs. Hostile attribution bias Neutral behaviour seen as a threatening, aggressive response. Applications to real-life behaviour Hostile attribution bias explains aggression, con rmation bias explains tribal politics, understanding it can help reduce con ict. The FAE is not universal Only in individualist cultures e.g. USA (not collectivist e.g. China). Key study: Lo us and Palmer (1974) Evaluation Aims Will changing one word in a sentence affect memory of car speed? Procedure Films of car accidents, ‘About how fast were the cars going when they ____ (into) each other?’ Findings Verb in uenced estimates, smashed 40.5 mph, collided 39.3, bumped 38.1, hit 34.0, contacted 31.8. Conclusions Changing one word biased responses (later research found memory of event actually changes). Experimental control Lab setting, e.g. control witness viewpoint, so change of word affected estimates. Biased sample of participants Young students, more accurate eyewitnesses than older people, hard to generalise ndings. Social approach Key concept 1: Conformity Evaluation What is it? Going along with a group due to invisible ‘pressure’. Normative social in uence (NSI) Accept norms of group (conform) to be liked and avoid rejection. Emotional process, stronger in stressful situations. Informational social in uence (ISI) Change behaviour/opinions when we believe others are right/have better information. Cognitive process, especially new or unclear situations. Research supports NSI Asch’s participants went along with group to avoid disapproval. No public pressure, no conformity. NSI and ISI work together in real life Lower conformity with dissenter, who gives social support (NSI), and is source of information (ISI). Key study: Asch (1951) Evaluation Aims Would people conform with obviously wrong answers given by a group? Procedure Group of students matched line lengths. Only one participant was genuine, others deliberately gave wrong answers. Findings Participants conformed on 36.8% of trials, 25% never conformed. Conclusions People conform mostly to avoid rejection (NSI). But people usually act independently. Level of control Lab, standardised procedure, so irrelevant variables cannot explain conformity. Limited application of ndings Male US participants, so ndings hard to generalise to women and other cultures, may underestimate true conformity level. Key concept 2: Types of conformity Evaluation Internalisation We agree privately and publicly with others, permanent, due to ISI. Compliance We agree publicly but not privately, temporary conformity, due to NSI. Identi cation Combination of other types, agree publicly and privately because we identify with group, only lasts while we are members (Kelman 1958). Support for Kelman’s three types Compliance (Asch 1951), identi cation (Haney et al . 1973), internalisation (Sherif 1935). Conformity types lack in uence SPS minimises personality and effect of identi cation (Fromm 1973). Key study: Haney et al . (1973) Evaluation Aims Is guard behaviour due to sadistic personality or brutal situation? Procedure Stanford Prison Study (SPS), volunteer students played guard or prisoner, uniforms for both roles, guards had power. Findings Both identi ed with roles, guards aggressive, prisoners rebellious but then subdued, study ended early. Conclusions Everyone conformed to roles (identi cation), including visitors and researchers, power of situations. The study was controlled e.g. emotionally stable students selected and randomly given roles, so ndings due to identi cation. The SPS lacked realism Participants play-acted based on belief about how guards and prisoners should behave, so not real-life conformity. Key concept 3: Social categorisation Evaluation What is it? Group membership based on shared characteristics, assume members all the same and different from other groups. What is a stereotype? Fixed view of a person’s behaviour/ character based on social category. How are stereotypes formed? Observe and imitate social information (SLT). What are the effects of stereotypes? • Positive – simpli es interactions, reduces cognitive effort. • Negative – can lead to prejudice, distort and bias social judgements. Research supporting stereotyping Half of white participants thought black man was holding razor, racist stereotype biased memory (Allport and Postman 1947). Effects of stereotypes Don’t inevitably lead to prejudice. Can hold a stereotype but not agree. Key study: Chatard et al . (2007) Evaluation Aims Does gender stereotype affect recall of maths test results? Procedure Students rate agreement with general gender stereotype, then rate own abilities, recall last maths/arts results. Findings Both boys and girls given stereotype reminder overestimated arts results, girls underestimated maths results. Conclusions Recall of previous maths performance biased in direction of gender stereotype, may affect female career choice. Tackling stereotypes Awareness of gender stereotype encourages women into science and maths careers. Role of participants’ expectations Some students may have realised stereotypes linked to recall of results, so wrote down what they thought researchers wanted. Assumptions of the cognitive approach Information processing and behaviour Internal mental processes (e.g. perception, memory) operate in stages to make sense of the world. The computer analogy Like computers we process through input- processing-output. Hardware (brain), so ware (information). Assumptions of the social approach Behaviour in social context People are social animals, psychologists study the in uence of others to understand behaviour (e.g. in conformity). People, culture and society Differences can be understood in terms of individualist (own needs) vs. collectivist (community’s needs). Assumptions of the learning approach Behaviour is a learned response Classical conditioning – Pavlov’s dogs, learning through association. Operant conditioning – reinforcement of behaviour from environment. The roles of observation and imitation We observe behaviour and imitate role models, especially if they are rewarded. Assumptions of the biological approach Behaviour is in uenced by our biology Physical basis to behaviour – central nervous system (brain), genes, neurochemistry (e.g. serotonin). Behaviour and evolution Natural selection of survival-promoting behaviours, genes passed on (Darwin 1859). Overview of four approaches Learning approach Key concept 1: Classical conditioning (CC) Evaluation What is it? Learning through association of two stimuli with each other (Pavlov). Before conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS e.g. food) produces unconditioned response (UCR e.g. salivation), other stimuli are neutral (NS). During conditioning UCS + NS (e.g. bell) repeatedly paired, associate NS + UCS. A er conditioning NS now a conditioned stimulus (CS) producing response (CR) on its own. Application to aversion therapy Electric shock (UCS) given when reading gambling phrases (NS), become CS producing discomfort (CR). Incomplete explanation of learning Can’t explain complex learning, e.g. phobias not maintained over time through CC. Key study: Watson and Rayner (1920) Evaluation Aims Emotional responses (fear) can be learned through classical conditioning. Procedure Little Albert shown white rat and loud noise made (hammer on metal bar) when he reached out for it. Findings Showed fear and avoidance of rat by second session, cried when it approached. Showed CR of fear to other white furry objects, lessened over time. Conclusions Easy to condition fear response in children which generalises. Some good experimental controls Controlled environment with no irrelevant stimuli, ndings due to CC not other variables. Poor generalisability Just Little Albert studied, emotionally stable, unlike most babies, ndings not applicable to others. Key concept 2: Operant conditioning (OC) Evaluation What is it? Learning from consequences. Consequence 1 – reinforcement Increases probability of behaviour repeating. • Positive – pleasant consequence. • Negative – remove unpleasant stimulus. Consequence 2 – punishment Reduces probability of behaviour repeating. • Positive – unpleasant consequence. • Negative – remove pleasant stimulus. Supporting research evidence Animal and human lab studies show OC, also brain basis of reinforcement (Chase et al . 2015). Not a complete explanation of learning Explains how phobias maintained over time but not how acquired in rst place. Key study: Skinner (1932) Evaluation Aims Is food a reinforcer in rats? Procedure Food pellets dispensed in a Skinner box every time rats pressed a lever. Findings Rats varied in time it took for them to press at a high rate (a er either rst, second or h presses). Conclusions Behaviour caused by natural laws, OC is relevant to everyday life, just one reinforcement can change behaviour. OC in education and childcare Schools use rewards and punishers to change behaviour. Problems with generalisation Sweeping conclusions about humans based on rats, ignoring mental processes, humans have conscious insight. Key concept 3: Social learning theory (SLT) Evaluation What is it? Indirect learning: observation, vicarious reinforcement and imitation. Modelling (1) demonstrating a behaviour to another, (2) person imitates the behaviour. Observation Observer watches model’s behaviour, retains in memory. Imitation Act of copying the model’s behaviour, more likely if observer identi es with model (same gender, high status, etc.). Vicarious reinforcement Observing the model receive reinforcement of behaviour makes observer more likely to imitate. Evidence supporting SLT Imitation more likely when model is rewarded (Bandura 1965), also in chickens when high status (Nicol and Pope 1999). Not a complete explanation Aggression more similar in identical than non-identical twins (Kendler et al 2015), SLT cannot explain role of genetics. Key study: Bandura et al . (1961) Evaluation Aims Would children imitate an aggressive, same-sex model? Procedure Children observed adult hit Bobo doll, controls saw adult play with toy or no model. All children frustrated and then played with toys. Findings Children who observed aggression towards Bobo most likely to imitate, boys imitated male model most. Conclusions Aggression imitated by children, especially same sex (identi cation). Learning aggressive behaviours Children observe and imitate aggression within family, implications for social policy. Arti cial environment In real-life situations children would have to be aggressive towards people not dolls, low generalisability. Biological approach Key concept 1: Genes Evaluation What are they? Strands of DNA carry ‘instructions’ for physical and non-physical characteristics. Genotype The genes you inherit. Phenotype How genes are expressed in interaction with environment. The SRY gene On Y chromosome, switches on other genes, embryo develops testes and testosterone. An interactionist approach e.g. version of BRCA gene linked to breast cancer but not all with the gene get cancer. Risk of oversimpli cation No one gene for a behaviour. Small contributions of many genes, interactions with environment. Key concept 2: Neuroanatomy Evaluation What is it? Structure of nervous system. Localisation of brain function e.g. • Motor area – controls movements on opposite side of body. • Somatosensory area – represents skin sensitivity of body (e.g. hands). • Visual area – receives information from right and le visual elds. Sex differences in brain Males greater total brain volume. Females bigger thalamus, stronger connections, thicker cortex. Support for sex differences MRI found women have stronger connections between hemispheres, may explain better multitasking (Ingalhalikar et al . 2014). Structure not function Sex differences in structure do not mean differences in functioning, very few conclusions but much speculation. Key study: Harlow (1868) Evaluation Aims and procedure Recorded details of Phineas Gage case, indicated aspects of how brain works. Findings Iron bar through Gage’s skull and front part of brain, changed personality, ‘no longer Gage’. Conclusions Intellect impaired but not lost, damage to le hemisphere so some brain functions localised. Ahead of his time Careful observations linking brain area (localisation) to behaviour. Unjusti ed conclusions Can’t make before- and-a er comparisons, ampli es effects. Key concept 3: Neurochemistry Evaluation What is it? How activity of substances in nervous system affect brain and behaviour. Neurotransmitters Communication between neurons across synapses, e.g. serotonin (low levels linked to depression, activity changed by drugs). Sex hormones • Ovaries (females) produce oestrogen – affects female reproductive organs and menstrual cycle. • Testes (males) produce testosterone – affects male organs, linked to aggression. Support for sex hormones Transgender women (female hormones) decreased aggression (Van Goozen et al . 1995). Contradictory research No consistent effect of sex hormones on visuo-spatial skills, effects are real but limited (Slabbekoorn et al . 1999). Key study: Deady et al . (2006) Evaluation Aims Is there a link between testosterone and maternal personality in females? Procedure Females completed BSRI plus questionnaire, salivary testosterone measured. Findings High testosterone linked to masculinity, lower maternal personality/reproductive ambition. Conclusions Women’s maternal tendencies due to testosterone, biological basis to maternal personality. Support from other research Aggressive female prisoners had higher testosterone (Dabbs and Hargrove 1997). Correlation not causation Variables correlate with each other but doesn’t mean one causes other, need more data. Key concept 4: Evolutionary psychology Evaluation What is it? Darwin (1859) explained natural selection – when resources are scarce, genes that produce characteristics helping survival (and reproduction) are selected and passed on. Environment of evolutionary adaptation (EEA) Human minds and behaviour evolved to adapt to life on the African savannah. Genome lag The gap between changes in our environment and adaptive changes to genome. Sexual selection Characteristics that threaten survival continue because attractive to potential mates. Support for genome lag Partner preferences changed in last 100 years (e.g. women less dependent), changes in culture but not genome. Problems with the EEA concept Human evolution didn’t stop in EEA (e.g. ability to digest lactose), some characteristics evolved much more recently. Key study: Buss et al . (1992) Evaluation Aims Is male/female jealousy different? Procedure Asked students which is more upsetting – partner falling in love with another (emotional in delity) or having sex with another (sexual in delity). Physiological measures, e.g. pulse rate. Findings 60% men (17% women) chose sexual in delity, 83% women (40% men) chose emotional in delity, correlated with physiological measures. Conclusions Male sexual jealousy prevents raising another man’s child, female emotional jealousy prevents losing partner’s resources. Physiological and psychological measures Study used objective and subjective measures, showed biological basis of jealousy. Limited sample of participants From one culture only, so could not show that jealousy is universal, does not fully support evolutionary explanation. 38 39 Unit 1: Psychological approaches and applications