Pearson BTEC National Applied Psychology Book 1

Evaluation Application to aversion therapy One strength is that classical conditioning is the basis of a therapy used to treat some psychological disorders, including gambling addiction. In aversion therapy, a gambling addict is given a painful electric shock (UCS) when they read gambling-related phrases on cards (NS). The shock produces an unconditioned response (UCR) of discomfort/anxiety. A er several pairings, the NS becomes a CS and produces the same discomfort (now a CR). This shows that classical conditioning has useful applications that can reduce psychological suffering and improve quality of life. Incomplete explanation of learning One weakness is that classical conditioning only explains how a limited range of behaviours is learned (e.g. simple re ex behaviours). More complex behaviours involve other learning processes (see the next two spreads). For example, classical conditioning can explain how a phobia of dogs is acquired. But on its own it cannot account for how that phobia is then maintained over time (e.g. how we learn to avoid dogs). This means classical conditioning is just a partial explanation of learning. Evaluation Some good experimental controls One strength of the study is that it was well-designed to control potentially extraneous variables . For instance, conditioning took place in a controlled environment to prevent irrelevant stimuli (temperature, lighting, etc.) from in uencing the procedure. This meant Watson and Rayner knew that the changes in Albert’s responses were due to classical conditioning and not to other factors. Poor generalisability One weakness is that Little Albert was the only participant in the study, which limits the applicability of the ndings. Albert was an emotionally stable baby who rarely cried or was afraid. This in itself is quite unusual, so indicates that Albert was unlike most babies. In other words, he was not representative of the population of babies. Therefore, the ndings of the study are not generalisable and tell us little about classical conditioning of fear responses in other children. Recent research has found that plants can be classically conditioned. How would that work and why would this be an advantage for plants? An issue to consider B3 Learning approach Key concepts: ● Classical conditioning – learning by association, to include the role of the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, neutral stimulus, conditioned stimulus and conditioned response. Key study: ● Watson and Rayner (1920) Conditioned emotional reactions – ‘ Little Albert ’ . Specification content Say cheese! L aila is a professional photographer. She often takes photos of people indoors using a flash. The camera also makes a ‘whirring’ noise when the picture is taken. Laila has noticed that most people blink the first couple of times the flash goes off. If she then takes a picture without the flash, they still blink. 1. Draw a diagram of the classical conditioning process in this scenario. Include ‘before’, ‘during’ and ‘after’ stages. Identify the UCS, UCR, NS, CS and CR at the various stages. Laila has also noticed that if she continues to take pictures without the flash, the blinking eventually stops. 2. Describe a similar finding from the Little Albert study. ACTIVE GET Specification terms Classical conditioning A form of learning where a neutral stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus, taking on its properties so that a new stimulus–response is learned. Conditioned response (CR) The response produced by the CS on its own. A new association has been formed so that the NS now produces the UCR (which is now called the CR). Conditioned stimulus (CS) A stimulus that only produces the desired response a er pairing with the UCS. Neutral stimulus (NS) Any stimulus that does not produce the desired response. It becomes a conditioned stimulus a er being paired with the UCS. Unconditioned response (UCR) An unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Any stimulus that produces a response without learning taking place. Key study: Watson and Rayner (1920) Conditioned emotional reaction – ‘Little Albert’ Aims John Watson and Rosalie Rayner wanted to show that emotional responses such as fear can be learned through classical conditioning. Procedure The participant was a baby boy called Albert. He was shown several objects one at a time (e.g. white rat, rabbit, masks, wooden blocks). A metal bar was struck with a hammer to test his response to a loud noise. Classical conditioning began two months later over several sessions. Albert was shown the white rat several times and the metal bar was struck (loud noise) whenever he reached out for the animal. Findings In the rst session Albert showed no fear responses to any of the stimuli. However, he showed an unconditioned response (UCR) of fear to the loud noise (UCS) – he cried. In the second session, Albert showed clear avoidance of the rat, pulling away when it came towards him. He eventually cried as the rat approached and tried to crawl away. In the third session he showed a conditioned fear response (CR) to each white furry object (and no response to other objects). Albert continued to show a fear response to white furry objects in later sessions but these became less extreme over time and when experienced in a different environment. Conclusions Classically conditioning a fear response to a neutral stimulus is relatively straightforward, at least in very young children. Watson and Rayner also concluded that a fear response conditioned to one stimulus will generalise to other similar stimuli without further conditioning ( stimulus generalisation ). Key concept: Classical conditioning Classical conditioning is a form of learning rst scienti cally studied by Ivan Pavlov (see diagram below le ). It is learning through association . It takes place when we associate two stimuli with each other. An unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus (UCS) is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus (NS). Initially, the NS produces no response but eventually produces the same response as the one produced by the UCS. Before conditioning The UCS triggers an unlearned response. The smell of food is a good example of a UCS because it makes us salivate automatically. We do not have to learn this response so it is an unconditioned response (UCR). Any other stimulus that does not produce the target response (salivation in this example) is an NS. For example, the sound of a bell or of your name being spoken, a tap on the wrist, none of these will produce salivation. During conditioning The individual repeatedly experiences the UCS and NS close together in time (‘pairing’). The NS is no longer ‘neutral’ when the person eventually learns to associate it with the UCS. Pairing has the strongest effect on conditioning when the NS occurs just before the UCS. It usually has to happen several times for conditioning to take place. A er conditioning A er enough pairings, the NS (on its own) produces the same response as the UCS. The NS is now a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the response it produces is called a conditioned response (CR). Content area B3: Learning approach Key concept 1 and key study BOGOF Buy One Get One Free! 50% o ! Two for the Price of One! Big Discounts Today Only! Everyone likes a special o er – but why do shops and brands do them? Surely such o ers reduce profits? The answer is that special o ers are good in the longer term because they encourage loyalty and repeat business. They do this by making us feel good about the brand. When a chocolate bar or bottle of wine is 30% cheaper in a shop it makes you feel good to think you ’ ve grabbed yourself a bargain. You associate this good feeling with the product, so that next time you see it you ’ ll feel good about it again even if it is full price. You might even feel good about the shop as well and decide to shop there again. Retailers use lots of ways to make us learn to love their products. This spread will help you to understand the psychological principles behind this. Before conditioning During conditioning A er conditioning Food (UCS) Salivation (UCR) Bell (NS) No response Bell (CS) Salivation (CR) Bell (NS) paired with food (UCS) Salivation (UCR) Pavlov’s dogs formed a new association between food and the sound of a bell. They were quickly classically conditioned to salivate to the sound of the bell on its own. 1. State what is meant by the term ‘classical conditioning’ . (1) 2. Describe one example of classical conditioning from everyday life. (2) 3. Marcus is a smoker. The rst time he had a cigarette he enjoyed the pleasurable sensations of the rst draw. Now every time Marcus looks at his lighter he gets a bit of a buzz. Identify the UCR, the CS and the CR in this scenario. (3) 4. Freya is a solicitor who works in a big law rm. Every time Freya’s boss asks her to come into her office, Freya feels anxious. Her heart rate increases, she sweats and her hands shake. Use your knowledge of classical conditioning to explain Freya’s reaction. (3) 5. Describe one nding of the key study by Watson and Rayner (1920). (2) 6. Explain what the ndings of Watson and Rayner’s (1920) study tell us about classical conditioning. (3) 7. Explain one weakness of the key study by Watson and Rayner (1920). (3) 8. Marina is explaining to her friends how she developed a phobia of dogs. ‘It’s because I was bitten by a dog when I was a kid. It hurt a lot and made me cry.’ One of her friends says, ‘OK, but I was bitten by a dog and it hurt but I didn’t get a phobia.’ Evaluate the concept of classical conditioning. In your answer you should consider: (a) Marina’s and her friend’s experiences, and (b) Watson and Rayner’s (1920) key study. (9) Exam-style questions A useful application of classical conditioning is for treating gambling addiction. It works on the basis that if a behaviour can be conditioned, then it can be reduced or eliminated through counterconditioning. For example, each time a person reads a gambling-related phrase they are given an electric shock so that they learn to associate gambling with pain rather than pleasure. 24 25 Unit 1: Psychological approaches and applications