Pearson BTEC National Applied Psychology Book 1

Assumptions of the learning approach Behaviour is a learned response to environmental stimuli Things in the environment bring about learning – if you touch a frying pan that has just been on the hob, you get hurt and you learn not to do that again. If you smile when you ask a favour you may nd you are more likely to get what you want, so you learn to do that again. Classical conditioning The word conditioning means ‘learning’. Ivan Pavlov (1927) noticed that his laboratory dogs salivated when they heard a door opening because they learned to associate that noise with the arrival of food. Classical conditioning is learning through association. Operant conditioning Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1938) demonstrated that when a behaviour produces a pleasurable consequence from the environment (e.g. a reward) it is likely to be repeated in future. The environment reinforces (strengthens) the behaviour, so this is called reinforcement . The roles of observation and imitation Albert Bandura (1977) argued that learning occurs through observation and imitation of other people’s behaviour in a social context. As children, we observe the behaviour of other people (e.g. parents) who may become role models . We are likely to imitate role models if we observe their behaviour being rewarded (e.g. with praise, fame, money). This is vicarious reinforcement . It is not the child’s behaviour that is reinforced, but the behaviour of the model they are observing. Assumptions of the biological approach Behaviour is in uenced by our biology This approach believes that everything that is psychological is rstly biological – our behaviours, thoughts and feelings have a physical basis. The central nervous system (CNS) is your brain and spinal cord. This is the control centre of your body. Different areas and regions of the brain perform different functions (e.g. language, aggression, vision, emotions). Damage to the brain/CNS can seriously affect these functions. Genes are biological ‘units’ of DNA inherited from our parents. These interact with environmental in uences. Many behaviours are in part passed on from one generation to the next. Neurochemistry refers to chemicals called neurotransmitters (e.g. serotonin , dopamine ) that are active in the brain and affect behaviour. For example, a low level of serotonin is thought to be involved in depression. Behaviour and evolution According to Charles Darwin (1859), genetically-determined behaviours continue into future generations (i.e. they are inherited). The behaviours that continue are those that are naturally selected because they enhance the individual’s chances of survival and particularly reproduction. For example, an individual who has good hunting skills is more likely to survive because they have food to eat. If they are well fed they are more likely to reproduce successfully and then their hunting skills (e.g. fast reactions) are passed on to their offspring. Exam-style questions 1. Describe what is meant by ‘information processing’ in relation to the cognitive approach. (2) 2. Outline the information processing assumption of the cognitive approach. (2) 3. Explain what is meant by ‘social context’ in relation to the social approach. (2) 4. Describe the assumption that other people, culture and society in uence behaviour. Illustrate your answer with one example from the social approach. (3) 5. With reference to the learning approach, explain the assumption that behaviour is a learned response from environmental stimuli. (2) 6. Explain the roles of observation and imitation in the learning approach. (2) 7. In relation to the biological approach, brie y explain what is meant by the ‘evolution and behaviour’ assumption. (2) 8. Describe the assumption that behaviour is in uenced by the central nervous system, genes and neurochemistry. Illustrate your answer with one example from the biological approach. (3) Know the key assumptions of the following di erent approaches to psychology: cognitive, social, learning (including behaviourism) and biological. Cognitive assumptions: ● Behaviour is a product of information processing. ● Computer analogy – input, processing and output. Social assumptions: ● Behaviour occurs in a social context. ● Other people, culture and society influence people ’ s behaviour. Learning assumptions: ● Behaviour is a learned response from environmental stimuli. ● Behaviour can be learned from observation and imitation. Biological assumptions: ● Behaviour is influenced by central nervous system (CNS), genes and neurochemistry. ● Behaviour is a product of evolution. Specification content Some people call this addiction Why do people become addicted? This is a question that psychologists would very much like to answer. There are lots of theories and lots of disagreement. Addiction is a behaviour and like all behaviours it can be explained from di erent points of view (or approaches, as we call them in this unit). The people in the image above may well be addicted to their phones (are you?). Think about these questions: • Is it possible to think in an ‘ addicted ’ way? How? • Is there a social aspect to being addicted? What is it? • Can you learn to be addicted? How? • Is addiction biological ? Is there something happening in the brain? Specification terms Central nervous system Consists of the brain and spinal cord, where complex decisions are made. Computer analogy The human mind can be compared to a computer with input, processing and output stages. Culture Refers to the norms and values that exist within any group of people. Evolution The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations. Genes Inherited DNA with instructions for building physical characteristics that in uence behaviour. (See also page 30.) Imitation Copying behaviour of others (called ‘models’). (See also page 28.) Information processing Behaviour can be understood in terms of information owing through the cognitive (mental) system in a series of stages. Learned response A behaviour acquired through conditioning, either association (classical) or rewards/punishments (operant). Neurochemistry Relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning. (See also page 34.) Observation Actively attending to and watching (or listening to) the behaviour of others (models). Social context In uences from other people, either individually or in groups. Cycling N orman Triplett (1898) found that children would wind fishing reels much faster when competing against each other than when they did it alone (even when they were told to wind as quickly as they could). However, interestingly some of the children consistently performed worse against a partner than when alone. Choose one assumption from the cognitive approach and one from the social approach. Explain how these assumptions relate to this scenario. ACTIVE GET Growing up W ilma’s three teenage sons have all bullied other children at school.They grew up in a violent household and witnessed their father physically abuseWilma several times.Wilma herself once served a prison sentence for assaulting someone.When she asked one of her sons why he bullied, he replied,‘Because I get what I want’. Last year one of her sons had a serious head injury (causing brain damage) in an accident and is now a very placid and calm person. How can the assumptions of the learning approach and the biological approach help us to understand this scenario? ACTIVE GET Assumptions of the cognitive approach Information processing and behaviour The word cognitive means mental processes. The cognitive approach views humans as processors of information – they take information in and blend it together to come up with new thoughts. Our minds use internal mental processes such as reasoning and remembering, which work together to enable us to make sense of the world and respond to it. Psychologists in the 1950s created a model (like a theory) to explain what happens to information from the environment. At each stage ‘something happens’ to the information (i.e. it is processed). These processes occur together and work cooperatively. For example, when you see a dog you notice it (perception), you focus on it to the exclusion of other things (attention), you recognise it (memory) and you can even name it (language). The computer analogy Computers are also information processors, so it is natural for cognitive psychologists to compare the mind to a computer. Computers and humans process information through three basic stages. Information goes into the system (input), it is changed and/or stored (processed) and then it is used to respond to the environment (output). Cognitive psychology uses several concepts borrowed from computing. The brain is our central processing unit (the ‘hardware’) and it codes information to change it from one format to another (the ‘so ware’). This approach to understanding the mind and behaviour has helped to develop arti cial intelligence (AI). Assumptions of the social approach Behaviour in a social context The word ‘social’ means other members of your species. Humans are ‘social animals’, so social psychologists believe behaviour is best understood by considering the in uence of other people. For example, have you ever ‘gone along’ with a group of friends just because you didn’t want to be the odd one out? Perhaps you had a different view from everyone else, but still outwardly agreed with them. Conforming is one way in which social context affects our behaviour. This pressure can be so powerful other people do not even have to be physically present – we just have to think about how others behave. Many social psychologists believe that social situations are the biggest in uence on behaviour rather than an individual’s disposition (their personality). People, culture and society Behaviour can also be understood and explained in terms of wider society or culture . Some psychologists believe there are two broad types of culture: individualist and collectivist . In individualist cultures (e.g. UK and USA) the main priority is the needs of the individual person. So what really matters is that we can achieve our potential and goals in life. For example, two people who want to share their lives together are expected to be ‘in love’ – the important thing is their individual happiness. In collectivist cultures (e.g. China and India), people prefer to prioritise their family and community before their own needs and wants. In such cultures, people tend to seek partners approved by their family, so being ‘in love’ is less important. Content area A1: Approaches and assumptions Overview of four approaches The giraffe’s long neck gives it an advantage in getting food that is not available to shorter-necked rivals. This shows how an animal has adapted physically in response to its environment. But what psychologists are really interested in is the evolution of behaviour, i.e. how some behaviours are adaptive (give an individual a special advantage). Identify some behaviours in humans and/or animals and suggest what their adaptive advantages might be. 10 11 Unit 1: Psychological approaches and applications