Edexcel Psychology for A Level Year 2: Student Book

Chapter 1 Issues and debates An understanding of how psychological understanding has developed over time The issue Psychology is a relatively new discipline, existing for only just over 100 years. Much has changed in that time. Using the past to inform the present The scientific process involves the development of theories/explanations. We begin with observations of the world or observations from research evidence which lead to a theory. Hypotheses are generated from the theory and tested by research studies. If a hypothesis is not supported, the theory must be modified. In this way past theories act as a platform from which we can develop new theories. There is an example of this in your studies of cognitive psychology. Frederic Bartlett’s (1932, Y1 page 74) theory of reconstructive memory was supported by his research studies (such as the War of the Ghosts). In the 1950s and 60s a number of research studies (such as Miller 1956, Baddeley 1966a and Peterson and Peterson 1959) led to a new perspective of memory as a set of stores and processes. This was the multi-store model (Atkinson and Shiffrin 1968, Y1 page 70). Further research challenged this theory, indicating that short-term memory consisted of more than one store (for example the case study of KF by Shallice and Warrington 1970). This led to a new model, the working memory model which had an acoustic and visual short-term store (Baddeley and Hitch 1974, Y1 page 68). This newer model continues to be developed by research. Change depends on ‘how’ as well as ‘what’ Not only do theoretical approaches change, but methods do too. So another reason for the change in understanding over time is the development of research techniques producing more detailed information. In biological psychology, this is illustrated by early research which used post-mortem studies of the brain, such as the work by Paul Broca in the 1860s (Y1 page 97) linking abnormality in speech production to damage to an area of the brain. In the 1960s CAT scans were first used which could show structural abnormalities in a live brain. Later still PET scans enabled the brain in action to be observed. For example, Adrian Raine et al . (1997, Y1 page 102) compared brain activity in murderers and non- murderers. Change is both reductionist and holistic It is often the case that each step forward focuses on smaller (more reductionist ) elements. However, individual parts may also be drawn together, to give a broader understanding in which these parts contribute to a bigger picture, i.e. a more holistic view. For example, Carlsson et al .’s (2000, Y2 page 52) review of the causes of schizophrenia relies heavily on many individually reductionist studies but pulls them together to give a sophisticated overall view which is more holistic. The influence of non-psychological factors Historical events and psychological viewpoints An influential event in the last century was the Second World War. The atrocities of the Holocaust led social psychologists to investigate obedience in order to understand the events and how they came about (Y1 page 32). In this case events outside psychology drew attention to aspects of behaviour that needed explanation. Social needs The current work on dementia in cognitive psychology is driven by a need to understand the causes and to potentially identify ways to slow the cognitive decline. This is essential in the current situation of an ageing population. Social norms In a more general way, prevailing social and academic views affect the nature of understanding sought by psychologists. For example, following the acceptance of Charles Darwin’s explanation of evolution in the 19th century, this approach was used to explain many psychological phenomena, such as aggression. The understanding of evolution, and genetics, led to explanations based on ‘nature’ arguments, such as personality ‘types’ and innate gender differences. Later the growing influence of the behaviourists led to a focus on nurture and the influence of the environment as people looked for new ways to improve their lives. Technological change Another legacy of the Second World War was the rise of information processing systems. This inspired cognitive psychologists to use computer concepts to understand human thinking, as in the multi-store model of memory (Y1 page 70). We now know the impact of information technology in wider society, but this has also paved the way for more sophisticated psychological theories and techniques. The use of virtual reality to deliver systematic desensitisation (Y1 page 146) is an example. Applying your knowledge An example of a synoptic exam question linked to how psychological understanding has changed over time: Evaluate how psychological understanding has changed over time. Use one approach from A1 and one applied area from A2 to answer this question. (20) The paragraphs below illustrate how you might answer this: The learning theories show how new ideas are developed when previous ones seem inadequate. Classical conditioning explains some things, like why dogs start to howl (CR) when they hear their owner’s car (previously NS, now CS) on the drive because of the association with being fed. However, nothing new can be learned this way. Operant conditioning enables us to do this through trial and error, but it still can’t explain how learning can take place without performance. Only social learning theory can do this. (84 words) The development of treatments in clinical psychology has improved over time. Early treatments for schizophrenia were ineffective, so first generation antipsychotics were a huge advance at the time. However, there were problems with side effects (such as Tardive dyskinesia), so they weren’t the solution hoped for. Second generation drugs are much better, but they don’t work for everyone so sometimes older drugs are still used in spite of the risks. (70 words) To answer a question well you need to do more than recall who found out what when – be able to make points of comparison across time. ‘If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants.’ Isaac Newton It is how science proceeds – ideas are developed, criticised, and further developed. It is a process forever in motion. 24